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PRACTICAL ENGINEER: 



A TREATISE ON THE SUBJECT OF 



MODELING, C0N&TRDCTIX6 AND RUNNING STEAM ENGINES. 

CONTAINING, ALSO, 

DIRECTIONS IN REGARD TO THE VARIOUS KINDS OF 
MACHINERY CONNECTED WITH STEAM POWER. 

PREPARED WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NEED OF 

STEAMBOAT OWNERS, CAPTAINS, PILOTS AND ENGINEERS, 



ON LAND OB WATER. 



SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED AND ENLARGED. 



BY JOHN WALLACE, 



PRACTI 




Orders, with the money inclosed, sent to W. W. and John Wallace, No. 819"Lib©rty 

Street, Pittsburgh, will receive immediate attention. The books will be 

sent by Express or by Mail, as persons ordering them may direct* 

PRICE, FIVE DOLLARS PER COPY. 

Postage or freight to be paid by the purchaser. 



PITTSBURGH: 

PRINTED BY W. B, HAVEN, CORNER OF WOOD AND THIRD STREETS. 

18 6 5. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, 
By JOHN WALLACE, 

In the Clerk's OflBce of the Listrict Court of the United States, for the Western 
District of PennsylvaDia. 



2-i i (= Jf 



(.^r^^" 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The author presents to the public this volume on ** Practical en- 
gineering,'' in the full confidence that such a work has long been 
desired, and js verj much needed bj the practical engineer, as well 
as those who have had little or no experience in this department of 
science, but whose business requires the aid of steam power. There 
have been many scientific works published upon the subject of steam, 
and various other matters connected therewith, altogether foreign 
from the object sought to be explained^ if they were, indeed, intend- 
ed to assist and instruct the practical engineer. We venture the 
assertion that there are a hundred things, aye, a thousand, the know- 
l^edge of which would be beneficial to the practical engineer, which 
have not been alluded to nor mentioned in the books hitherto 
published on this important subject. The reason of this may be 
attributed to the fact that men of mere theory have undertaken to put 
forth books for the purpose of instructing practical men in matters 
which the authors have never learned, and about which they are 
totally ignorant. So far as the theory is correct, they are entitled 
to credit for its promulgation. 

But abstract theory can never meet the wants of the practical 
engineer, and instruct and assist him in working steam engines. In 
other words, it is folly to assume that a theorist alone can be possess- 
ed of such a correct and practical knowledge of steam engines as 
will meet the hearty response and approbation of that class of 
persons for whose benefit this treatise is published. It will readily 
be conceded, then, that a work, in order to be useful, must issue 
from one who is acquainted not only with the theory but ^ii\i practical 
engineering ; and it must exhibit in every page evidence of the 
author's practical experience. When such is the case, practical 
nien will not only at once perceive the author's capability to explain 



ir 

aud elucidate the different branches of the subject upon which h© 
writes, but will be much pleased and instructed by a perusal of the 
work. Such a book is now presented. 

The author of this work has had experience in practical engineer- 
ing, extending through many years, in various places, and with 
almost every description of engines. His sources of knowledge are 
therefore extensive, and the results of his information are given in 
the pages of this work in a plain, concise and practical style. He 
has been employed in constructing and working at engines of various 
kinds, in Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Cincinnati, Louisville, and New 
Albany, Ind.; and was for some length of time a practical engineer 
in running the Ohio and Tennessee rivers. 

Bis knowledge of land and stationary engines is quite as extensive 
as that of most other persons, and he feels therefore confident of 
the utility of the present work to practical men. 

The author has had in contemplation to publish a work of this 
character, for some eight or ten years, thinking that the public 
would be benefitted from its perusal ; but hoping to be anticipated 
by some one of merit and usefulness, the project was time after 
time abandoned. After having perused many works from which 
engineers (himself among them ) expected to derive benefit and in- 
formation, and finding them wide off the point sought to be obtain- 
ed, he was persuaded to enter on the task of compiling a book 
suited to the wants of the practical engineer. 

This volume, therefore, has been written and compiled especially 
^or the practical man ; but its pages will be found both interesting 
and instructive to engine builders. They w^ould do well to consult 
its pages previously to modeling machinery for steam engines. It 
is entitled -'The Practical Engineer,'^ and should be in the hands of 
every steamboat captain, as well as engineer. It will not only in- 
struct him in many things of which he is ignorant respecting the 
machinery and workings of the engine, but will be of great use in 
enabling him to draw up an order for an engine, with so much clear- 
ness and accuracy as to enable ihe builders to perfectly understand 
what is required, and upon what terms it can be filled. This is an 
important consideration, and one which, unfortunately, captains 
have been heretofore too little acquainted with. It will also be 
found of interest and profit to the pilot to read this work, as it may 
lead him to the discovery of danger from the working of the engine, 
and excite bini to greater care in the discharge of his duty. 



The secoud volume will be devoted to marine, factory, and other 
stationary engines. 

In conclusion, I would say to the practical engineer, engine 
builder, captain and pilot of boats, make this book your study, so 
far as duty requires, and you will find that your time has not been 
lost; but, on the contrary, you will be possessed of such a general 
knowledge of steam er.gines, as you little thought of previous to 
its perusal ; and upon the strength of which you can each embark 
upon your respective duties with confidence, knowledge, and a 
certainty of greater success. 

JOHN AVALLACE, 

Pittsburgh, July I, 1853. 



.>!^- 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



In place of a second volume of the ** Practical Engineer," which 
the author in the above preface proposed to publish, he now presents 
to the public a second edition, improved and enlarged, of the work 
itself. The additional experience of eleven years in making all 
kinds of machinery connected with steam engines, enables him to 
add much to the utility of the book. The many testimonials that 
he has received of the benefit derived from perusing the "Practical 
Engineer," and the fact that the demand for it was urgent after 
the edition was exhausted, were both gratifying to him, and afforded 
a stimulus to exert himself to make the book still more worthy of 
public patronage. 

In preparing this work the author has drawn chiefly on his own 
experience and observation. There are a few selections and tables 
from Brunton, Scribner, &c. ,* but in giving information on subjects 
so intimately connected with propertj^ and life as those which relate 
to steam machinery, he was not willing to put forward any thing 
the reality of which he had not tested. 

JOHK WALLACE 



CONTENTS. 



Page, 

BOILERS— Upright Boilers, 13 

Horizontal Boilers, 25 

Low Pressure Boilers, , 16 

High Pressure Boilers 18 

Cylinder Boilers, and their advantages,. 20 

Single and Double Fined Boiler.-,, 25 

Fined Boilers 2G 

Elbow Flued Boilers, 26 

Objections to Flued Boilers, 27 

Rotarj' Boilers,. , 28 

Bottle Boilers, 29 

Steel Boilers, 29 

Short Boilers, 30 

Long Boilers, 31 

Boilers Immersed in Fire, 32 

Thickness of Boiler Iron, 32 

Thickness of* Flue Iron, 35 



Thickness of Boiler Heads, 36 

Diameter of Boilers, 37 

Comparative Fire Surface of Boiler Hulls and Flues, 37 

Cross Boiler and Bridge Wall, 38 

Upright Boilers a failure for propelling Steamboats 39 

Portable Boilers, 40 

Small Top Boilers, 41 

Water Fire Fronts 4\ 

Various kinds of Patent Boilers, 42 

Auxiliary Boilers, 4'J 

Cylinder Boilers for Steamboats, 4 I 

Distance between Boilers, i.''> 

Causes of Boilers Exploding and Flues Collapsing, 4G 

Copper Pipes filled with Water used for Grate Bars. ">^ 

Materials used for making Boilers, yti 

Iron Boilers, .... 57 

Cast Iron Boilers, 57 

Glass Boilers, 5S 

Directions lor Buildino Boiler Wal'.s, Stacks, kc 5>^ 



Viii OONTENT*. 

Height of Stacks^ 60 

Location and Height of Stacks, &c,, to guard against Fires, 62 

How to set Boilers and close in the Brick Work, 67 

Steel Boilers, ....: 71 

Strength of Steam Boilers, 73 

Inspect your Steam Boilers, 74 

Concerning Steam Boilers, , 77 

Incrustation of Boilers, 79 

The way Boiler Scale is deposited, 80 

Rupturing Boilers, 80 

To prevent Boilers Exploding and Flues Collapsing 82 

Explosion of Steam Boilers, 85 

Explosion of a Boiler, and its Cause, 86 

Panting of Boiler Heads and Hulls, 89 

Suggestions to Captains of Steamers, 89 

To lind the Weight of Steam in the Boiler, 93 

John Wallace's Vertical Steam Boiler, 90 

Various KINDS of Fuel — Stone Coal and ^lack, 97 

Dry and Green Wood, 97 

Wood and Coal mixed, 98 

Saw Dust and Slack ; 9.s 

Tan Bark, ! 98 

Ant h ra cite Coal, 99 

Pine Knots, 9:> 

How to put on Coal in Boiler Furnaces, lOu 

Boiler Tubes, ...100 

Experiment tried on a New Boiler, 102 

Deposit of Lime on Boilers, 103 

Weight of Steamboat Boilers, &c., ]or> 

Pressure allowable on Boilers of various dimensions, adopted 

for the guidance of Local Inspectors, 1 1 i 

JOIXTS — Various Materials for making Joints, 112 

Cement Joints, ] I 2 

Lead Joints, 113 

How to run a Horizontal Lead Joint, 1 L"» 

How to run a Perpendicular Joint, 1 1 »> 

How to prepare a Joint for Running, 1 17 

Sheet Lead Joints, I 17 

v^heet Lead and Canvas Joints, lis 

Rolled Sheet Lead Joints, lis 

Red Lead Joints, 119 

White Lead Joints, 119 

Screw Patch Joints, 120 

Copper and Sheet Iron Joints, 121 

Ground Joints, 123 

Universal Steam Pipe Joints, 124 

FIRE FriOXTS, ifcc— Fire Fronts and Back Flaies, 126 

Fire Fronts Lined, 12o 

Burning out Grate Bnrs, 127 

Hack Plates 125 



OONTENTii. ix 

STEAM AND STAND PIPES— Cast Iron Steam Pipes, 129 

Cast Iron Stands connected with Copper Pipe, 131 

Wrought Iron Steam Pipes and Drums, 131 

Wrought Iron Supply Pipes, = 133 

Different places for attaching Steam and Stand Pipe to Boilers, ..134 

Steam taken from end of a Pipe, 134 

Best mode of taking Steam from two or more Boilers, 135 

Steam taken from a Steam Drum, 136 

STOP COCKS, CYLINDER LUGS, &c.— Danger of Brass Stop 

Cocks between the Boiler and the Force Pump, 137 

Blow-off Stop Cocks on Boiler Stands, 138 

Freezing of Stop Cocks,.. 138 

Various modes of Casting Cylinders, 139 

Four Lugs cast on the Cylinder, 139 

Four Nozzles cast on the Cylinder, 141 

Six Lugs Cast on the Cylinder, ...141 

Sub Cylinder, \ 141 

Stroke of Cylinder, ' 142 

SLIDES, PITMANS, PILLAR BLOCKS, &c.— Bearing, Thick- 
ness and Width of Slides, 144 

Length of Slides, 145 

Shoving Heads Bored out, 146 

Bolts for Shoving Head Jaws, 147 

Length of Pitmans, 150 

Wooden Pitmans, 151 

Iron Pitmans, 152 

Placing in Wrists, 152 

Collar Wrists, as formerly used, 153 

Wrists as now used, 153 

Wrists without Keys, 154 

Bottom Brasses in Pillar Blocks, 155 

Keys in Side Boxes, 155 

Backing in Side Boxes, __156 

Set Screws for Side Boxes, 156 

Boring out Pillar Blocks, 157 

Large Collars on Shafts, 157 

Small Collars on Shafts, 158 

JOINTS, (coiifinued)— Vine Board Joints, 159 

Packing Yarn and Rope Joints, 159 

Canvas Joints 160 

Gasket Paper Joints, , 161 

Various causes for Joints blowing out and leaking, 163 

Gum Joints, ,.,..." 164 

Hat Joints, 165 

Muslin Joints, 166 

Cassimere Joints ..166 

How to make and run Lead Gaskets, 167 

Soft Cement Joints, 167 

Sancura 169 



X Content.^. 

^SL1DE VALVEiS, CAMS, .<lrc..— Slide Valve, Cul-oif and 8eat,....l7o 

Different kinds of Cams, 174 

Eccentric Cams, ....; lib 

Rolling Mill, Cut-off and Full Stroke Cams, 176 

Wrist or Crank Motion, 176 

Length of Fall Stroke and Cut-off Slide Valves, 17G 

Slide Valve Cams with equal slides, 157 

How to lay out a Slide Valve Cam,. 180 

Expanding Cams, 181 

Setting the Full Stroke Cam,. 182 

Setting the Cut-off Cam, '. 186 

Puppet Valve Cams, 187 

Slide Valve Cams, 188 

How to lay out Cams, 188 

PUMPS, &c.— Horizontal Force Pumps, 199 

Upright Force Pump, 200 

Upright Force Pumps with Bored Chambers, 201 

Rules how to find Stroke of a Plunger by figures, 201 

The true principle to make a Force Pump, 202 

Cold Water Pumps, 203 

Force Pumps, 204 

Superior Force Pumps, .,204 

Superior-Force Pump with Air Vessel?, 205 

Cause of Force Pumps and Check Valves Surging, &c., 206 

Inoperative Feed Pumps, 209 

Cold Water Pumps, 211 

Treacherous Force Pump, 212 

Construction of a Force Pump. 213 

Defect in Force Pumps made in early years, 215 

How to cut the Leather for a Pump Box 218 

Best kind of Valve Seats for Force Pumps, 219 

Various modes of Gearing Pumps, 220 

Dangerous Check Valve Chambers, 220 

ACCIDENTS,... 223 

Caution to Boiler Makers and Engineers, 227 

MISCELLANKOUS — Various causes for Engines Surging, 

Laboring, &c., 231 

Cylinders out of true, 241 

How to put a True Wrist in a Crooked hole, 243 

Balance Governor Valve 244 

Table of Mechanical Movements, ..., 245 

Engineering Trick, 247 

Caution to Distillers of Oil, 247 

Rules for Squaring and Lining off Shafts, 248 

Balance Valve in Force Pumps, 253 

Wallace's Governor, 255 

Stern Wheel Steamers with Two Water Wheels, 255 

Speed of Fly Wheels for Grist Mills, &c., 256 

The Form of an Order for a Steam Engine. 257 



Content;^. \i 

How to jjut up au Engine, .....262 

A Charge to Overseers of Establishments using Steam Power, ....265 

Caution against Freezing in the Winter, 268 

Grate Bars and Bearers, 272 

Double-acting Force Pump, 276 

Nominal Horse Power, 277 

Horse Power of eighty-five different sizes of Engines, 286 

Rule to find the number of revolutions of the last Driven 

Wheel to one revolution of the first Driver, 298 

Table of Areas and Circumferences and Sides of Equal Squares, 300 

Governors or Regulators, 305 

Table of the Weight of Cast Iron Pipes, 309 

Table of the Velocity of Motion, 810 

Tables of the Weight of Malleable and Cast Iron Plates, Bars, &c. 312 

Cutting off Steam, 314 

Combustible Materials, 315 

Scene on board a Frozen Ship, 318 

Sitting on Safety Valves, ....,.,..319 

Anthony Harkness, , ,.,., „..„.„..... 319 



INDEX OF PLATES. 



Page, 
i. Side View of a Boiler, , 70 

2. End View of Six Boilers, 70 

3. View of a Steamer Listed and one Flue Collapsed,. ......... 92 

4. Safety Valve Table, 95 

5. John V^^allace's Vertical Boiler within a Boiler, 95 

6. John Wallace's Vertical Boilers within a Boiler, 96 

7. View of a Cylinder cutting off at three-fourths Stroke, 142 

8. Slides, Wrists, Steam Pipes, Elbow and Quarter Circle 

Fined Boilers, 144 

9. Six Regular Slide Cut-off Valve Cams, having one lean 

and one full side, 172 

10» Bottom of Cold Water Pumps, 174 

11. Two Full Stroke, one Slide Valve, and three Puppet Cut- 

off Cams, 174 

12. One Eccentric and one three-eighth Cut-oft' Slide Valve 

Cam, » 178 

13. Six Puppet Valve Cut-off Expanding Cams, 180 

14. Two Full Stroke and four Puppet Valve Cut-off Cams, 182 

15. Showing the position of the Cut-off and Full Stroke Cam 

when the Engine is about coming over the dead centre; 
also, the two Equalizing Cams, 184 

16. Six Puppet Valve Cut-off Cams, 190 

17. Six Regular Cut-off* Slide Valve Cams, having one lean 

and one full side, 192 

18. Three D, Full Stroke, and three Cut-off Puppet Valve 

Cams, 195 

19. Three different kinds of Cold Water Pumps, one leaving 

two Air Vessels, 206 

20. Two Force Pumps, 212 

21. Defective Force Pump and Valve Chamber, 214 

22. Defective Force Pump, 218 

23. Superior Balance Governor Valve and Throttle Valve 

Chamber, 244 

24. Table of Mechanical Movements, 246 

25. Plate of 6, 8 and 10, for Squaring Shafts, 248 

26. AVallace's Governor, 254 

27. Side view of bad construction of Grate Bars, 273 

28. Side view of good construction of Grate Bars, 274 

29. Double Acting Force Pump, 276 

30. Cog Wheels and Pulley and Calculation of Speed, 297 

31. Crank, Pitman and Slides, showing why Steam cannot be 

cut off equal at each end of the Slides, 314 



THE 



PRACTICAL ENGINEER. 



BOILERS. 



Boilers are of almost every kind and description, 
shape and size, for the purpose of generating steam, for 
running low and high pressure engines, and may be 
classed under the names of upright, horizontal, revolving, 
circular, flat, elliptic, cylinder, slide, tubular and flued 
boilers. 

UPRIGHT BOILERS. 

Upright boilers stand on end perpendicularly, having 
the fire-box within the second shell of the boiler. Be- 
tween their inner and outer shells there is generally left 
a space of from 2 to 3 inches (more or less, according to 
circumstances), which is filled with water about 6 or 8 
inches above the low water line. In Wallace's upright 
boiior there is a boiler witJiin a boiler^ coming down from 
Vthe top of the fire surface to within 2 or 3 feet of the 
grate bars, the depth depending altogether on the size of 
the boiler and the kind of fuel used. If wood, saw dust 
or shavings, &c., be used, the fire-box ought to be made 
deep, but shallower for coal. For particulars of John 



14 The Practical Engineer. 

Wallace's upright boiler, &c. see description of plates of 
the same ; by referring to the index for upright boilers, 
see page of same. There are also in use tubular upright 
boilers, with thefirepassing up through the flues, out of the 
tops of the boilers. These boilers, on account of the fire 
passing above the water line, are liable to be overheated ; 
and there is danger of leaking on the tops of the boilers 
around the tops of the flues, where they are turned over 
and caulked. I saw a boiler of this kind thrown away 
for that reason. When steam was up, and the fire pass- 
ing through the flues above the water line, it caused the 
flues to expand more than the boiler, and the steam would 
leak out round the tops of the flues nearly as fast as it 
could be made — partly owing to the flues having been 
made of rather heavy iron. 

There is another kind of upright boilers, that I saw 
made in Angelica, New York, altogether diflerent from 
any made in this part of the country. The outside boiler 
shell is wrought iron ; the inner shell is four-square, made 
of cast iron, bolted together on the opposite or angle 
corners, by screw bolts and flanges, and cemented, having 
from about 90 to nearly 200 copper flues passing through 
the cast iron sides ; one tier with about 1 inch space 
between the outside of the flues, then another tier on top 
of this, running crosswise, and each successive tier at 
right angles with the preceding. The water passes 
through the inside of these flues, and the fire operates ; 
all around on the outside of them, and also within that^ 
part of the square box which is not taken up by the ends i 
of the flues. But there are serious objections to this ' 
hind of boiler. It is almost impossible to clean them 
out, especially if lime water is used ; and they are very 



Boilers. 15 

expensive to build, as well as to clean, if they should get 
out of order inside or around the flues. In such a case 
a large portion of the boiler would have to be taken 
apart, and that perhaps only in order to make some 
trifling repairs, A job of this kind may take as many 
weeks as a cylinder or flued boiler would require days, 
and cost as much more in proportion to the time lost. 
Accordingly, boilers of this construction should be dis- 
pensed with, excepting in some particular cases, where 
room w^ould be an indispensable object. 



HORIZONTAL BOILERS. 

Horizontal boilers are always laid nearly level, say 
1 inch to 20 feet, leaving the ends where the blow-off 
valve is, a little low, so as to run the water entirely 
out of the boiler. Most of the boilers now in use are 
of this description, as it is the best position to attain the 
greatest amount of fire-surface, and to apply the heat 
from the furnace to the boiler to the best possible ad- 
vantage. When used for stationary engines, these boilers 
are generally enclosed in bricks ; a few are enclosed in a 
sheet iron fire-bed, lined with fire bricks all around the 
front end of the furnace ; the other part is filled in with 
soft common bricks, and sometimes between the boilers 
covered with fire brick tile, made to order, to fit the 
circles of the boilers ; also if the boilers be not too far 
apart, they are frequently filled in with common bricks. 
The back ends of flued boilers are sometimes covered 
with tile made for the purpose, and sometimes with 
cast iron plates. I prefer the latter. 



16 The Practical Engineer. 

LOW PRESSURE BOILERS. 

Low pressure boilers are generally not capable of car- 
rying high steanij as they have a large diameter, and the 
fire-box or furnace is within ; and very frequently have 
return flues, for the purpose of using up the heat, and 
economizing the fuel to the best possible advantage. 
These boilers vary from 6 to 14 feet diameter, more or 
less. I saw two on board the Northern steamer In- 
diana^ on Lake Erie, at Cleveland, that were lOJ feet 
diameter, and used two tiers of 4 feet grate-bar, mak- 
ing a length of 8 feet, the cylinder being 74 inches 
diameter and 10 feet stroke. I was in the hold when 
they were drawing the fires ; they were white with heat, 
hot enough to melt pig metal in a few minutes after being 
thrown in. The fires were, if I recollect right, blown up 
with a fan, as they generally are in the East when the 
boilers are down in the hold, and have little draft un- 
der the grate bars, different from boats that have their 
boilers set uj) on deck — and when running at a fast speed 
will produce a very strong draft, especially when running 
against a strong head wind. 

Two of the largest low pressure boilers I ever heard 
of were used at a blast furnace in Staffordshire, Eng- 
land. They were 14 feet diameter, 36 or 40 feet long, 
and with two 36 inch flues in each boiler, the fire passing 
out under the boiler, then in through one flue and back 
out at the other into the stack. They consumed about 
18 tons of coal in 12 hours. The cylinders were about 54 
inches diameter, 10 or 12 feet stroke. They carried 
steam 14 lbs. per square inch. The blast cylinder was 



Boilers. 17 

about 10 feet diameter, 10 or 12 feet stroke ; each tier 
of grate-bars was 6 feet long, raaking the fire bed 12 
feet long and 12 feet wide in the furnace, or altogether 
144 square feet. In proportion as the diameter of the 
boiler is increased, the strength is diminished, and in 
proportion as the diameter is reduced, of course the 
strength will be increased. 

Large low pressure boilers for the ocean used to 
be made in early days of sheet copper^ and cost about 
50 cents per pound. The objection to iron boilers then 
was their corroding by the salt water ; but this objection 
is overcome at the present day, by means of some chem- 
ical process, and iron boilers are now coming into gen- 
eral use, as they are believed to be stronger than copper 
and only cost one-sixth or one-seventh part of the price 
of copper boilers. 

I have traveled frequently on the steamer Mary 
Washington^ in Chesapeake Bay, from Baltimore, and 
also on the Rappahannock, from Fredericksburg, Vir- 
ginia, to Baltimore. This steamer had a large low 
pressure boiler made of copper, and the fire-box and 
ash-bed within the same. The fuel used in this part of 
the South is mostly pine wood, brought to Baltimore by 
sailing vessels. The inside of the air pump was lined 
with brass, the main shafts were wrought iron, and the 
walking beam cast iron. The heads of these large 
boilers," and many other parts, must be well braced with 
a large number of bolts to make them sufiiciently strong. 
The boilers, cylinder and air pump are down in the. hold 
of the boat, and the walking beam up on deck. 

As a general thing, I believe it is customary to carry 

not more than from 14 to 28 lbs. of steam on low 
9^ 



18 The Practical Engineer. 

pressure engines. Frequently double-flued boilers, such 
as we use on our western rivers for high pressure en- 
gines, have been used^.on the same waters for running 
low pressure engines, with the only difference, that the 
boilers used for low pressure do not require to be so 
strong as those for high. I have known steam to be 
carried about 60 lbs. per square inch for low pres- 
sure engines on our western waters, with double flue 
boilers. They would require a large amount of cylinder 
in order to cut the steam off and give it room for ex- 
pansion. 



HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. 

High pressure boilers are generally made of smaller 
diameters than those used for low pressure, in order to 
be sufficiently strong for carrying high steam. Very few 
of them are made over 4 feet diameter; the sizes gen- 
erally used are from 42 down to 30 inches diameter, 
varying 2 inches in each diameter, making seven different 
diameters. A great maiiy for smaller engines may be 
found with smaller diameters, but when made of less 
than 80 inches diameter it will be found difficult to clean 
them out, especially if that cleaning should be required 
often, as when muddy or limestone water is used. 
These boilers are usually from j\ to J of an inch m 
thickness ; some few are made jq inch, and even f inch 
thick, with about 6 feet diameter, but they are seldom 
used so large. Our steamboat boilers are now nearly all 
made ^ inch thick. The height of steam carried on our 



Boilers. 19 

high pressure boilers varies greatly, from 20 lbs. up to 
200 lbs. per square inch — the general average height, 
varying from 60 lbs. to 120 lbs. per square inch, alto- 
gether owing to the thickness of boilers and amount of 
work to be done ; and the medium height between the 
two would be about 90 lbs. per square inch. The boilers 
should be made of good quality ^ inch iron, where a 
tolerably high pressure is wanted, as in our rolling mills, 
blast furnaces, grist mills, &c. 

There is a great variety of boilers made for the pur- 
pose of raising steam for high pressure engines. The 
two kinds l^o^Y in general use for running stationary en- 
gines are the cylinder and the fined boilers. In earlier 
days the cylinder boilers w^ere preferred, for the reasons 
that they were a great deal cheaper, and considered safer 
in case the water would get low — there being no danger 
from collapsing when water was scarce, as in the case 
with flued boilers when the flues become bare and red hot, 
particularly in short boilers, and so are very likely to 
collapse. Another great advantage of cylinder boilers 
is, they are much easier to be cleaned out. This is im- 
portant, especially if the water should be impregnated 
with lime and make astrong scale. In these boilers 
there is no difficulty in removing the scale by using a 
sharp pick made for the purpose ; only great care must 
be taken in working about the rivet heads, as there would 
be danger of their becoming loose and flying off*. Anoth- 
er great advantage of the cylinder boilers is their being 
more easily and cheaply repaired, as they generally may 
be repaired in their beds, without being removed, by 
taking out the grate-bars or a portion of the furnace 
walls, as the case may require. 



20 The Practical Engineer. 

Another reason why cylinder boilers were generally 
used was, that fuel formerly was very cheap here. We 
could get the best of stone coal hauled to any part of 
our city for 3 cents per bushel, this being the retail 
price by the single load, and I think, probably about 
2f cents wholesale for foundries and factories ; and those 
whose establishments were near the pits, could get it 
for little more than the price of digging, which, I think, 
was then, J, f and f of a cent per bushel, slack being in 
those days scarcely considered worth hauling. Some- 
times it was used for the purpose of making coke. But 
at the present time labor is worth nearly three times 
as much as it was thirty years ago, and the price of coal 
has risen to 10 and 12 cents per bushel. 



CYLINDER BOILERS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES. 

Cylinder boilers are the simplest, cheapest, safest 
and best boilers that can be made.; they are equal in 
strength to the flued boilers. Some perhaps will say the 
heads of ilued boilers are much stronger and stiffer than 
those of cylinder boilers, owing to their being braced 
length ways by riveting the flues to the boiler heads. 
The part around and below the flues, indeed, is very 
strong, and no doubt would bear a greater pressure than 
the boiler hull. But the head above the boiler flues, 
which is nearly half of the diameter, receives bnt little 
or no benefit from the flues. Sometimes this part of the 
head has no braces at all. I have often seen flued boilers 
which were braced and supposed to be very strong ; but 
I above the top of the flues they Avould bag out, sometimes 



Boilers. 21 

a. half inch, more or less. This is a proof of their not 
being sufficiently braced. These braces ought to be 
made of the toughest and best iron, to prevent their 
breaking or cracking in expansion and contraction. 
They should be made of iron one-third part heavier than 
that formerly used, and at least two or three braces in- 
stead of one. I know some boiler makers will object to 
this as a deviation from their common mode of making 
them ; but the secret of the whole matter is, they do not 
like to be troubled about making alterations. A wrought 
iron boiler head, if well braced, ought to be about as 
strong, Avhen the boiler is worn out, as when it was first 
put in, and since boilers are very frequently made by 
the pound, the extra-expenses will be only a trifle more, 
and the work be stronger and safer. You should know 
and understand what you are ordering, and in drawing up 
an article, state precisely what you want, and never yield 
to please those whom you employ and afterwards have 
to pay. Always bear in mind, '' a thing well done is 
twice done." 

But to return to cylinder boilers. Thei^^ heads, if loell 
braced, may he made as strong as fined boiler heads, 
and they can easily be braced so as to carry as much 
pressure as the hull w^ill stand, and this is all that is 
necessary. Cylinder boilers are much lighter than 
flued boilers, and are much easier cleaned out, as men- 
tioned before. Another advantage is : in case they 
should give out on the bottom or outsides, they can be 
very frequently mended in the furnace, Avithout moving 
the boilers out of their place, by taking the grate bars 
out or removing a part of the side wall. Another ad- 
vantage is, as there is a greater body of water in these 



22 The Practical Engixeer. 

boilers, they do not require to be watched as closely as 
the flued boilers. Of course, they mu&t be attended to 
— I will not advocate carelessness ; but as these boilers 
are without flues, there is no need for you to be uneasy 
about the tops of the flues becoming red hot for want of 
water, and on this account being liable to collapse. It 
is true, if the brick work outside and between the cylinder 
boilers should be 2, 3 or 4 inches above the low water 
gauge cock, the boiler iron might become red hot, if the 
water should be suff'ered to get below the brick work, at 
any time; but the damage done in this case would not 
be so great as in the heating of the top parts of the flues, 
because the flues will more likely collapse when getting 
hot than the boiler will burst when overheated. The 
iron on the flue is easily pressed together, the pressure 
coming from the outside, notwithstanding the good quality 
of the iron used ; sometimes it will give way without tear- 
ing or breaking. Not so with the boiler hull ; to give 
way it must explode, and bm^st or ruptui'e, and then the 
iron is generally rent in sundry places, more or less as 
the case may be. I have frequently seen boilers give 
out on the sides where the brick work was enclosed, at 
the low water line, in consequence of the water being 
sufi*ered to get below the low water gauge cock. Often 
the boiler iron would be cracked from one rivet hole to 
the other for one sheet or more, then it was crystallized 
and brittle at the low water line, owing to having been 
sufi'ered to get dry and suddenly cooled by the water 
coming in. Another advantage is, you will not be 
troubled with sweeping out the flues every week, or at 
least every day. Another, and not the least advan- 
tage is, there being in them a much larger body of water 



Boilers. 23 

in proportion to the heating surface of boiler iron, they 
do not require to be examined so often at the gauge 
cocks, since the water will boil away much slower than 
in flued boilers. The reason is obvious, when taken in 
consideration that the flued boilers have a much larger 
amount of fire surface in proportion to the quantity of 
water used. 

It is the opinion of some that there is but very little 
steam made by the heat passing through large flues in 
boilers, say from 10 to 20 inches in diameter, as it is the 
nature of heat to ascend. It will be taken for granted 
that a greater quantity of steam will be made on the up- 
per parts of the flues than on the lower ; since the ashes 
are constantly more or less carried ofi" with the draft 
every time the fire is stirred up, they are continually 
settling in the bottom of the flues, and become a non- 
conductor. The extra quantity of steam made by flued 
boilers over that produced in cylinder boilers is not so 
great as is imagined by some. This extra quantity is, 
no doubt, attributable to another cause generally over- 
looked, viz. to the fact of having the quantity of water 
reduced to about one-half, owing to its being displaced 
by the flues, so that only one-half of the water is to be 
heated by the same amount of fire used under the cylin- 
der boilers. With the aid of the flues the water being 
heated so much sooner, say in about one-third of the time, 
steam can be got up more rapidly with the. flued boilers. 

This being admitted, I will describe a new cylinder 
boiler, made and patented by Washington Irwin, formerly 
boiler maker in Pittsburgh, but for the last twelve years 
in Nashville, Tennessee. Having made a large cylinder 
boiler for Mr. Bell, of Tennessee, for a blast furnace — 42 



24 The Practical Exai:^EEK. 

inches diameter, and 80 feet long— which was heated by 
gas, Mr. Bell found it failing to make as much steam as 
he expected according to the size of the boiler and the 
quantity of iron and water contained within the same. 
He came back to the boiler maker, saying: '^ Mr. Irwin, 
I am afraid of having overdone my boiler, as it does not 
produce steam in proportion to the quantity of water 
used." "Very well," replied Mr. Irwin, " I can easily 
cure that." And he undertook the job by placing what 
may be called a steam drum inside of the boiler, which I 
will now describe: First, suppose you have a cylinder 
boiler, 40 inches in diameter and 20 feet long, made of 
J inch iron, then you make the inner steam drum of thin 
sheet iron, for the purpose of displacing the large amount 
of water usually carried in cylinder boilers. This inner 
drum mav be 20 or 24 inches in diameter, one end of it 
being riveted to the inner head of the boiler, 2 inches 
from the bottom of the boiler, to allow suificient room 
for cleaning. The drum is made from 1 to 3 inches 
shorter than the boiler inside, and is closed steam-tight 
with a head, to allow room for the outer boiler to expand 
freely independent of the inner drum — it being heated 
first, of course it will be the first to expand. To make 
the drum safe, it is made clear of the boiler at one end, 
and fastened at the other to accommodate itself. Thus 
one end is made independent of the other, to prevent the 
breaking of a joint and springing a leak. Inside of the 
boiler, and on top of the drum within the same, there 
are several pipes or tubes, say about 6 inches in diameter, 
reaching to about 4 inches of the top of the inside of the 
boiler. The steam then will pass freely down these 
____pipes into the drum, and is taken out from the drum 
jo the engine by means of a steam pipe. 



Boilers. 25 

This cylinder boiler is said to produce about the same 
amount of steam that a flued boiler of the same size does ; 
it costs much less, and is much safer. You can carry 
this boiler about three-fourths full of water, and in this 
way increase the fire surface in comparison with that in 
a common cylinder boiler. There is another advantage 
in the inner steam drum over that commonly used on top 
of boilers, viz. the steam, not being exposed to the atmos- 
phere, is not liable to condense, and dry steam is worked. 

The iron used for the inner drums may be made very 
light, just heavy enough to bear caulking ; the pressure 
within and without being equal, the drum is in a state 
of equilibrium, and on this account the steam drum will 
not require more than from one-third to one-half the 
thickness of the boiler hull. 



SINGLE AND DOUBLE FLUED BOILERS. 

We are opposed to the use of single flued boilers, be- 
lieving it to be bad economy on the part of those who 
get them made. No doubt it is generally done with a 
view to save cost ; for one flue costs more than two. But 
there are other things to be taken into consideration. 
There will be more openings in two flues than in one, and 
of course a much better draft, and the flues being less 
in diameter, will be much stronger ; and being lower 
down in the boiler, there will be room for a sufficient 
quantity of water to cover the flues. In addition to this, 
there will be more room in the boilers for steam, and 
more steam can be produced in a shorter time with two 
flues than with one. 
3 



26 The Practical Engineek. 

We had once an application to make two flues for a 
boiler that had but one. It would not work as it was. 
The fuel would not burn for want of a draft. After two 
flues were put in there was no more complaint. With 
less fuel there would be a stronger fire and more steam. 

It is always a saving of fuel to have plenty of boiler. 
Besides, it is pleasanter for the fireman, and easier on 
the grate bars and fire fronts, and the fire has time to 
consume entirely the fuel; whereas, when there is too 
little boiler the fire requires to be stirred up frequently 
until it is sometimes almost at a white heat. This is 
hard on the bars, the fire fronts and boilers, as well as 
on the walls, which are liable to be soon made useless ; 
while the continual stirring of the fire sends large 
quantities of the fuel through the grates before it is con- 
sumed. 

FLUED BOILERS. 

Quarter circle flued boilers are quite as dangerous as 
elbow flues. They work on the same principle, but dif- 
fer a little in their construction. They take up about 
2 feet less room in the length of the fire bed, and absorb 
most of the heat returning into the flue ; but they are 
unsafe for high pressure engines, and therefore unfit for 
use, on account of the pressure at the end being on only 
one side of the flue. 



ELBOW-FLUED BOILERS. 

Formerly elbow-flued boilers were much used on board 
of steamboats, but are now dispensed with altogether* 



Boilers. 27 

The elbow flue joins the bottom of the boiler about 3 
inches from its end, and by this arrangement a great 
amount of heat (which in the present boilers is lost on 
the back of the fire bed and back plates,) is applied to 
the raising of the steam. The principal advantage to 
be gained by the use of elbow-flued boilers is the power 
they have of generating more steam than those now in 
use, but this advantage is of no practical account, from 
the fact that the pressure of steam is unequal on the 
elbows of the flue ; and although they are braced up with 
bolts, yet they cannot be made sufiiciently strong, but 
are apt to collapse in the elbow, which is the weakest 
part of the flue. This makes it unsafe and of course 
unfit for use. One reason for using them was, they took 
about 24 inches less room in length on the back end. 



OBJECTIONS TO FLUED BOILERS. 

Flued boilers for stationary engines have been object- 
ed to by many for a great variety of reasons, some of 
which I will mention. First, They have been considered 
as very dangerous on account of the tops of the flues 
being liable to become red hot, in case the water, from 
neglect or some other unforeseen cause, might be sufier- 
ed to become low in the boilers. Secondly. Many, par- 
ticularly country people, are of the opinion that when 
a flued boiler is used it is indispensi;bly necessary to 
have what is called a regular engineer, and for higher 
wages, too, than they are willing or even able to give. 
TJiirdly. The cost of this' kind of boiler is much greater 
than that of the cylinder boilers, the difference of the 



28 The Practical Engineer. 

price being just in proportion to the diiference of the 
weight of the boilers, to which you may add the expense 
for the brick work, and the back plate for the boiler 
flues. Fourthly, The flues require constant scraping 
out, to keep them clean, otherwise they would be of 
very little use. Fifthly, You may be obliged to place 
your boiler in so small a space as not to have any room 
left at either end of the boiler, for sweeping out the flues. 
Sixthly. Another objection is the great difficulty found 
in cleaning out the boilers around and under the flues, 
especially if lime water should be used ; and Lastly^ the 
difficulty and expense of repairing the boilers and flues. 



ROTARY BOILERS. 

In about the year 1825, during my apprenticeship, I 
assisted in getting up the patterns for a rotary boiler 
at the establishment in which I was employed, for the 
inventor, whose name I do not recollect. The object he 
had in view was to generate steam a great deal faster 
than could be done with the present stationary boilers. 
The boiler, being altogether immersed in fire, turned 
round on a gudgeon at each end in a pillar block. The 
journals were cast hollow, and bored out so as to supply 
the boiler with water through one of the gudgeons, which 
was made tight by means of a stuffing box, and the 
steam was to be taken out the same way. It was the- 
calculation to carry very little water in this boiler, and 
by immersing the same in the fire and revolving it, to 
generate steam very rapidly. I stood by when steam 
was up, and saw them experimenting with it, but as it 



Boilers. 29 

was not found to be of great use, it was abandoned. I 
will state one of the objections to it. As the boiler was 
a revolving one, it was intended to be turned by the 
engine when it was running, but while steam was raising 
it would have to be turned by hand or some other means, to 
prevent the boiler from burning and becoming red hot, 
which would cause it to leak. Another difficulty presents 
itself, namely, with respect to the trying of the gauge 
cocks. As it was the intention to carry but a few inches 
of water in the boiler, the gauge cocks would be near 
the outer surface of the boiler, and in order to try them 
you would have to stop the boiler, which would require 
to stop the engine too — a loss of time not be overlooked. 



BOTTLE BOILERS. 

Bottle boilers are upright boilers, and have been fre- 
quently used for marine engines. One advantage of 
this kind of boilers on sea is, w^hen the boat is as it w^ere 
on the beam's end, there would be no danger of the flues 
being exposed to fire, as is the case in horizontal boilers ; 
they take up less room and require less castings, and, 
no doubt, answer the purpose for low pressure engines. 
Not having possession of a particular description, I pass 
on to 

STEEL BOILERS. 

Steel boilers are being introduced on locomotives. 
This is, of course, one of the latest experiments of the 
age, and it will take time to test them fully. I suppose 
3* 



30 The Practical Engineer. 

the sheets might be somewhat thinner than those made 
of iron, as the material is stronger, and there would be 
a double advantag;e in usinoi; them on locomotives and 
lio;ht water steamers, as the boilers would weicrh con- 
siderably less, and being thinner they would raise steam 
proportionably quicker; besides, they would be a great 
deal less likely to burn or spring in the seams at the 
caulking, than the heavy boilers. A boiler of y% iron, 
double thickness, would be at the seams f inches thick, 
and on that account, unless kept extra clean, it is very 
apt to spring over the fire at the rivets, and leak, and 
also about the rivet heads, on account of the water being 
so far from the outer surface of the iron. 



SHORT BOILERS. 

A large portion of heat is lost in using short boilers, 
and we have frequently seen the blaze issuing from the 
tops of the chimneys of both river and land engines. 
To prevent this, the grate bars should be shorter and in 
proportion to the length of the boiler. Where this can- 
not be done without the loss of the bars in use, the rem- 
edy is to build a temporary bridge wall on the top of 
the bars next the existing wall. In this way the proper 
length of the bars can be ascertained when new ones are 
made. It is a common error to make the bars for short 
boilers too long, and for long boilers too short, and thus 
the disproportion between the two sizes of boilers is 
greater than between the length of the bars respectively 
for them. The rule should be, 1 foot of bars to a certain 
number of feet of boiler, the quality of fuel being taken 
to the account. 



Boilers. 31 



LONG BOILERS 



The error referred to is more frequent in the case of 
lono; boilers. It is not uncommon for boilers 40 feet 
long to be put up with 4 feet grate bars. This is al- 
together out of proportion. As an approximation to 
definiteness, I would say that when fuel is cheap, the 
proportion might be 1 foot to 6 ; where economy in 
fuel is an object, the difference might be increased to 1 
to 7. 

For flued boilers, 1 foot to 6 is the right proportion, 
unless fuel be plenty, and then it might be 1 to 5. In 
24 feet boilers the flame would travel 48 feet, which I am 
confident is a much better arrangement in every respect 
than 30*feet boilers and 4 feet bars. 

Long boilers are now coming into general use. They 
have used them on our rivers 40 feet in length, aud cyl- 
inder boilers have been made 42 feet long for land use. 
This, we think, is going to the opposite extreme ; 40 feet 
is too long for a steam boat boiler. Such a boiler can 
hardly stand under its own weight without a centre bear- 
ing, and under a steamboat boiler we do not approve of 
this. We believe that 40 feet is too great a distance to 
carry the heat for making steam, and beyond the point 
where a boiler ceases to do this it is worse than useless. 
It adds unnecessary weight, takes up room, and acts as 
a condenser to cool what steam has already been made. 
It is better that the boiler be too short than too long, 
for several reasons: long boilers require much more time 
to raise steam, they will spring easier than if they were 
shorter, and by being too long they condense the steam 



32 The Practical ExaiXEER. 

at one end of the flue while vou are makincr it at the 
other end of the boiler. Besides, thev will not bear 
their own weight in hauling, or rolling, without being 
materially dinged, unless they are handled by skillful 
persons with the greatest care and precaution. The 
medium length of boilers is generally the best. Never 
choose either of the two extremes. "We would sav, for 
general use, from 24 to 34 feet in length will be about the 
best size, varying the length from the one to the other 
to suit the different diameters of boilers and sizes of boats 
on which they are to go. 



BOILERS IMMERSED IN FIRE. 

I recollect of an extensive iron manufacturer speaking 
about the cost of six boilers for a blast fui^nace. His 
idea was to have three boilers abreast on the furnace 
and the other three placed on top of the lower, connect- 
ed with large water pipes, the three lower boilers full 
of water and the upper three about half full. The 
three lower boilers were to be immersed in the flame, 
and the flame also to reach up to the centre of the upper 
boilers; the object of which was, by giving more fire 
sm'face in the same furnace, to use up the heat and make 
more steam than is ordinarily done. I think it not un- 
likely this kind of boiler will answer the purpose. 

THICKNESS OF BOILER IRON. 

No steamboat boiler less than J inch thick should be 
allowed to be put on boats made for high pressure engines 



Boilers. 33 

having boilers 24 inches and upwards in diameter, and 
all boilers over 42 and up to 48 inches in diameter, should 
be made of -,\ iron. We would here suggest for the 
consideration of those who are ordering engines to be 
built, the propriety of having four sheets or more of the 
boiler iron that is over the fire yV of an inch thicker 
than the balance of the boiler, as that part of the boil- 
er is the most exposed to the heat or action of the fire, 
and is more likely to burn or bag than any other part 
of the boiler. We think it would be econmy to make 
boilers in this way. In addition to this, we would sug- 
gest another idea, and feel fully satisfied on this sub- 
ject that we are right. It is this : that the last sheet of 
iron in the bottom of each of the boilers should be made 
^ of an inch thicker than the iron in the boiler hull. 
This is the sheet to which the boiler stand is to be fast- 
ened. The object of this sheet being thicker is, that the 
boiler will stand more firm and secure, and the stand 
pipe have a larger and stifier bearing upon the body of 
the boiler than it now has upon a sheet of the usual 
thickness. 

The sheets of iron on top of the boiler to which the 
steam pipe is fastened, we would have the same way ; 
and all boilers fastened together with screw bolts should 
be ^ inch thicker than the boiler hull iron, because J 
inch iron would spring between the bolts, and would be 
liable to leak. The iron is not sufficiently strong to be 
screwed up tight and hold large boilers together. 

We are aware that wrought iron steam and stand pipes 
are now used, and that they are riveted on to the boilers 
and hold the iron close together between the rivets ; but 
still that does not prevent the boiler from springing up 



34 The Practical Engixeer. 

and down on the boiler stand, owing to the great weight 
on such a small surface of thin iron. To remedy this, 
we would recommend a heavy sheet of iron to which 
the boiler stand pipes should be fastened, with thick 
flanges on them. 

If you could bring your boiler stand, like a land en- 
gine, to rest on the boiler head, then it might do — but 
this cannot be done. Had the plan which we now speak 
of been adopted when the cast iron steam pipes were in 
general use, the use of the extra flanges inside the boilers 
under each steam pipe branch, with six holes in it, for 
the purpose of making the boiler iron stifl" enough to be 
screwed up tightly, and help to stiffen the iron between 
the bolt holes, could have been entirely dispensed with. 
This method of strengthening the boiler ii^on is frequent- 
ly adopted, and we deem it patching up sometliing that 
was not sufficiently strong in the first place. 

If boilers were made stiff'er, as we have proposed, 
there would be less danger of the joints breaking, or of 
them leaking whenever exposed to stormy weather, or 
any ill-usage caused by the motion of the boat. 

We think that our Government should not allow any 
steamboat boilers to be used of less than J inch iron, 
of good quality and warranted. Boilers over 4:2 inches 
in diameter, /g of an inch thick, and the extra f sheets 
we have alluded to for the boiler connections and the 
steam pipes, you may not at present be disposed to adopt ; 
but the last sheet of iron on the bottom of the boiler 
that rests upon the top of the boiler stand and bears 
up the whole weight of the boiler, should be made \ of 
an inch thicker than the boiler hull. Let every one who 
is interested in the welfare of the community, and es- 



Boilers. 86 

pecially the traveling public, see to it. We have 
no doubt but that the time will soon arrive when this 
plan will be generally adopted. 

Siiiall boilers 32 inches diameter and less, having j% 
iron, should have less steam in the same proportion that 
the iron is reduced from the usual thicknesSj which is ^ 
inch. 



THICKNESS OF FLUE IRON. 

The iron used for making boiler flues should be full 
as thick as the iron used for the boiler hull, for three 
reasons: 

1st. It is much easier to collapse a flue than to burst 
a boiler. 

2d. We very frequently hear of flues collapsing where 
it is stated that there was a sufficient quantity of water* 
in the boilers ; and we believe it, from the fact that they 
frequently collapse when about starting out. We re- 
collect once seeing a boat, below the Falls on the Ohio 
river, that had collapsed her flue, and which, we believe^ 
was under way at the time the accident happened. 
When we saw her she was in the middle of the river^ 
and they were endeavoring to bring her to shore. The 
bow was covered with steam. 

3d. If the water gets a little low in the boiler, the 
tops of the flues become bare and are liable to get red 
hot ; and by being heated more on the top they become 
weaker just in proportion as they are heated, and under 
the pressure of the steam, flatten or press together. 

Abstract reasoning is of no weight against experience 
and demonstration of the fact, that the flue iron made 



36 The Practical Exgixeer. 

of the same thickness of the boiler is weaker than the 
boilers, and for this reason they should be made propor- 
tionablv thicker, sav y g inch, than the boiler hull. An- 
other point requires particular attention in the construc- 
tion of flues : that thcT be exactly round,-— not havino; 
any'flat places,— for this materially destroys the strength 
of the flue; and if any part is more likely to giye way 
than another, it is that part which is out of round. 
Great care should be taken to see that eyery sheet of 
iron is perfectly sound, clear of blisters, flaws and scales. 
For want of this, much unnecessary trouble is caused, 
that miofht otherwise be ayoided were eyery sheet 
thoroughly inspected by the boiler maker before putting 
it in. 

THICKNESS OF BOILER HEADS. 

Steamboat boiler heads should always be made of 
wrouo:ht iron. The time was when they were almost 
uniyersally made of cast iron. There are two objections 
to cast iron heads on steamboat boilers : they often break 
between the flues, and they are too heayy. Wrought 
iron heads for 34 inch boilers should not be less than \ 
inch thick ; 36 inch boilers, -^^ ; 88 and 40 inch boilers, 
I thick; 42, \\ ; and up to 48 inches in diameter, | inch 
thick. Both front and back boiler heads should haye at 
least two strong braces in each head, and large boilers 
more. The back head in which the man hole plate goes, 
should haye a large band riyeted inside of the boiler 
head, around it, to make the boiler head stiff so as to 
stand screwing up tight. The ring should be 1 to IJ 
inches thick by 2 or 2 J inches wide, owing to the size of 



Boilers. 37 

the boiler, planed up on both sides. Sometimes these 
heads are made of a solid sheet, and flanged for riveting 
to the boiler; others are made of gunnel iron, with a 
flat piece riveted inside. This, we believe, is the stifi*est 
head of the two, but either of them are good enough if 
they are well made, and of good material. The gunnel 
iron ought to be from | to f inch thick — twice the usual 
thickness. 

DIAMETER OF BOILERS. 

For the use of steamers in general we are not in fa- 
vor of small boilers — nothing less than 34 inches in diam- 
eter. This is as small as a man can properly clean out, 
and small enough for raising steam. Nor do we think 
it would be good policy to go over 4 feet in diameter for 
our high pressure engines. 40 and 42 inch boilers are 
as large as they are generally made, but we believe large 
boilers make much more steam, in proportion to the 
amount of fuel used, than small ones. They require, 
however, a larger furnace, a greater body of water, and 
longer time to raise the steam. In small steamers, 30 
and 32 inch flued boilers are sometimes used, but it is 
with difficulty that a man can get in to clean them. 



COMPARATIVE FIRE SURFACE OF BOILER 
HULLS AND FLUES. 

There is a greater amount of fire surface in the two 
flues of a boiler than in the boiler hull. In a 40 inch 
boiler, 20 feet long, with two flues of 15 inches each, tlie 
4 



38 The Practical Engineer. 

boiler hull will have 5 feet 6 inches fire surface, even 
with the top of flues, and the flues 474 inches each ; now 
if we expose 7 feet of the boiler hull circumference to the 
fire, by carrying the water high and using a large steam 
drum, which will make 140 square feet, the flues have 
42 inches clear fire surface, or 7 feet circumference in 
the two flues, making 140 feet fire surface, — ^which is 
precisely the same as in the boiler. But the amount of 
steam raised in the flues will be less than in the boiler, de- 
creasing in the same proportion that the heat diminishes 
as it passes off from the furnace. 

It is said by some, that a double flued boiler makes 
twice the amount of steam that a cylinder boiler of the 
same size does. This is not correct, according to the 
foregoing calculation. It is shown, that there is about 
as much fire surface in the two flues of a boiler as in the 
boiler shell up to the water line ; but a great difference 
exists in the heat after being partly exhausted and spent 
on the boiler before entering the flues. The flame in 
short boilers may come through the flues, but it is for a 
very short period, whilst the fire is hot under the boiler. 
A flued boiler will make fully 50 per cent, more steam 
than a cylinder boiler of same size. 



CROSS BOILER AND BRIDGE WALL. 

The splendid four boiler low pressure steamer Mexico 
had a cross boiler at the end of the grate bars, which 
answered for the bridge wall, and was connected to the 
main boilers with pipes. The object no doubt was to 
make more steam, and to save the constant repairing of 



Boilers. 89 

the brick work, which was frequently thrown down by 
heaving in the wood. I was about to put one in our 
shop, and had it partly made, when I learned from a man 
who had tried one, that it was difficult to keep it tight, 
and of no real advantage ; I then abandoned it. 



UPRIGHT BOILERS A FAILURE FOR PROPELLING 

STEAMBOATS. 

Upright boilers? were tried on the steamer Lafourche^ 
which was built at Cincinnati about thirty-five years ago. 
I was informed that on her way to New Orleans, she 
either burst her boiler or collapsed her flues, and had 
to be towed back to Cincinnati, to be overhauled. She 
could not stem the current to any advantage, and on 
this account, the upright boilers were thrown out, and 
others put in their place. 

The steamer Nebraska^ when she first came out, had 
an upright tubular boiler, having the fire box and ash 
pit within it, but not having a sufficiency of power, her 
engine and boilers were thrown out, and a horizontal 
double-flued boiler, and new engine, put in their place, 
when she gave entire satisfaction. 

The steamer Advance No. 1 had one upright tubular 
boiler, but it would not make a sufficiency of steam to 
run the boat against the current. Another boiler of a 
similar kind was put in alongside. I went on her up 
the Allegheny river seven or eight miles, on her trial 
trip, but the water was too low; she came back to Pitts- 
burgh, and started up again the next high water; when 
about one hundred miles up the boiler gave out at the 



40 The Practical Engixeek. 

bottom of the flues in the fire box. A hole was then 
drilled in the bottom of the boiler, between the flues, and 
the mud was found to be 1| inches or more thick in the 
bottom, and owing to this, the boiler was burnt, which was 
the. cause of its springing a leak around the tubes at the 
bottom and putting out the fires. As we made the cast- 
ings for the two engines, I told them at the beginning 
that the upright boilers would not do for the river, that 
they would fill up with mud, and it would be impossible 
to clean them out, but they thought to keep them clean 
with a blow-off, which could not be done, as there were 
nearly two hundred small flues in one boiler, and they 
were quite close together. They then brought the boat 
down and put in two small double flue boilers, and had 
no trouble afterwards. 

N. B. Where upright boilers are used the water should 
be soft and clear. 



PORTABLE BOILERS. 

A portable boiler has the furnace within the boiler 
to avoid the necessitv of brick walls and stone founda- 
tions, which cannot conveniently be got in some sections 
of the country, and they can be moved from one place 
to another in a short time and with less expense than the 
common boilers with brick walls and stone foundations. 
This kind of boilers is preferred by many in the oil 
regions for the reason that in boring oil wells they have 
to move from one place to another. 

They are also used for portable mills throughout 
variojs parts of the couutrv. They cost more than 
flued boilers, and require great care and attention in 
keeping the water in its proper place. 



Boilers. 41 

SMALL TOP BOILERS, 

ABOUT FIFTEEN INCHES IN DIAMETER, USED INSTEAD OF TILE. 

The steamer Eclipse had eight large size boilers. 
In place of fire brick tile, between the boilers at 
the low water line, they put in seven small boilers, 
making in all, fifteen boilers, the object of which 
was to generate more steam, by having the fire to 
act on them instead of on the tile, which was almost 
red hot. I was informed that they were soon taken 
out, failing to answer the desired purpose. She was one 
of the largest class of lower trade boats, having two cyl- 
inders 36 inches in diameter, 11 feet stroke, puppet 
valve. Her piston rods, in the rough, were 8 inches 
in diameter, and 15J feet long. 

WATER FIRE FRONTS, 

I have seen cast iron boiler heads made for high pres- 
sure boilers, having the fire front ca&t on the boiler 
heads, a double thickness, leaving 2 or 3 inches of 
water space between them, with room iBtha centre for firo 
doors, and extending down even with the top of the grate 
bars. The object of this was to, genieraibe more steam, 
save the fire brick lining, and keep a- cool front. It was 
tried for a short time, but never capie into general use. 
The cost in all these experifjipnt^ was more than the 
profits. These extra boilers wer.e.very difficult to clean 
out, and liable to burn on account of dirt and lime set- 
tling in them. They have all been abandoned long ago 
as useless, with the exceptions of those used on low 

pressure boilers for ocean steamers, &c. 

4* 



42 The Practical Engineer, 



VARIOUS KINDS OF PATENT BOILERS. 

There have been a great many kinds of boilers pat- 
ented, but I have never seen or known any of them to 
come into general use. They are mostly weighty, costly, 
and very hard to clean out, and if they should be over- 
heated or get out of order so as to require repairs, they 
in many cases have to be taken to pieces, besides re- 
quiring a considerable length of time, and to repair 
them would cost almost as much as a plain double-flued 
boiler. 

AUXILIARY BOILERS. 

There have been a great many experiments tried for 
the purpose of assisting the main boiler or boilers to 
generate more steam with less fuel than could be done 
without, of which I will mention some that I have seen, 
such as outside flat boilers, cross boiler and bridge wall, 
hollow grate bars made of copper, hollow fire fronts 
cast to the boiler head, top boilers, &c. 

I will give you the particulars respecting flat outside 
boilers. We had in our shop one 32 inch cylinder boiler 
in use for a considerable length of time, and by request 
we put in two additional flat outside boilers on each side 
of the cylinder boiler, connected with water and steam 
pipes to the main boiler, for the purpose of raising 
more steam with the same furnace, by using up the heat 
that was in the side walls, which were white with heat. 
We expected on trying them to have more steam than 
we could use with less fuel than we formerly used, but 



BOILERJ?. 43 

we were sadly disappointed. We will admit that they 
made some little additional steam, but not in proportion 
to the additional extra amount of fire surface, for the 
following reason : the fire close to the sides of the flat 
boilers did not burn so well, for want of air ; it was with 
the fire here as it was with the old Franklin grates that 
had cast iron back plates, it would never burn well close 
up to these plates but would be black and dingy, and brick 
was preferred on that account, then the fire would burn 
bright, making the walls white with heat. Just so with 
the side boilers, they were of no account ; the cost far 
overrun the profit, and being flat, only 6 inches wide, 
they were full of braces. They were about 30 inches high 
and ran back 12 feet. The centre boiler was 20 feet 
long. They were not so strong as round boilers. It is 
a wrong notion to suppose that because the walls are red 
hot the heat is lost ; the heat still remains in the furnace, 
and reacts on the boiler, and also causes the fuel thrown 
in to burn much better than it would do on flat sides 
of boilers kept black by being filled with water. After 
using them for some time we took them out to connect 
with a larger boiler on the other side of the house for a 
larger engine, and then we filled up the holes in the 
cylinder boiler where the steam and water connections 
were, and tried the same boiler again without them, 
and got along very well. Now I will speak from expe- 
rience. These boilers are never worth putting in a 
stationary or river engine. The cost far exceeds the profit. 
The conclusion that I have come to is, that they are of 
no particular advantage for rasing steam even in low 
pressure engines. I mean the fire operating inside of 
the boiler, on the sides of th*3 same, amounts to little or 



44 The Practical Engineer. 

nothing. The only place that these low pressure boilers 
would be profitable and safe, is on lake and ocean 
steamers, for the following reason : in steamers on 
those waters the boilers are down in the hold, and are 
pretty close to the hull. When the fire-bed is lined 
with brick they are often in great danger. These boats 
are subject t^ be caught out in storms and driven and 
rolled from side to side, and very frequently the freight 
is tumbled about, and in such cases the brick work 
would be thrown down and the fire-bed would become 
red hot, and burn up the boat and all on board. In such 
cases this is the only kind of boilers that will stand the 
test, for when caught in a storm, they being filled with 
water between the inner and outer shell of the fire-box, 
there is no danger. 



CYLINDER BOILERS FOR STEAMBOATS. 

Cylinder boilers, from 18 to 30 inches in diameter 
have frequently been tried for propelling light steam- 
ers, ferry and tow boats, &c. Those who used them 
no doubt thought they would answer a good purpose, 
but a few trials soon proved the contrary. We recol- 
lect of two steamers, the Harlem and the Franklin^ 
that used them for a short time. The Harlem had five 
of these small boilers, 18 inches in diameter, and the 
Franklin four of the same size; but after giving them 
a fair trial, they were taken out and replaced by double- 
flued boilers. 

There are many objections to these small cylinder 
boilers ; they are too small to be properly cleaned out, 



Boilers. 45 

and a great deal of the heat is lost in the chimney. 
The heat from the chimneys, in warm weather, is a great 
annoyance, and the boat at all times is liable to take 
fire from it. They always require much more fuel than 
flued boilers. 

The small cylinder boilers at best, are but poorly cal- 
culated for generating steam, and as a general thing 
should not be used on steamboats. They consume a 
much larger amount of fuel in proportion to the quantity 
of steam raised, than flued boilers. 



DISTANCE BETWEEN BOILERS. 

It has been the custom to set boilers but 2 inches 
apart between the boiler heads, leaving where the iron 
was not more than ^ inch thick, but IJ inch between 
the hulls of the boilers ; but at present it is quite com- 
mon to have them 6 and 8 inches apart. This gives 
more fire front under the boilers, allows the flame and 
heat of the fire to get between the boilers to better ad- 
vantage, and makes steam much sooner than if they w^ere 
closer together. For proof of this, examine two boilers 
that are close together, and they will be found black and 
sooty ; then examine two that are from 6 to 8 inches 
apart, and they will be clean and white like a well-heat- 
ed oven. The distance between being greater, the fire 
has a better opportunity to operate on the boilers, and 
by so doing necessarily generates more steam. 

As a general rule, the space between the boilers and 
between the outside boilers and the ^ alls, should not be 
less than 3 nor more than 4 inches. The objections 



46 Tub Practical E^^GIXEER. 

to wider spaces are, they have to be covered with tile, 
which in some places it is difficult to get, and involves 
an increase of expense; more room is occupied, and 
more fuel consumed ; the brick or tile in such wide 
spaces is liable to be broken and fall down, and then the 
fire will act on the boiler above the water line, causing 
the iron to crystallize and crack. But where the spaces 
are but 8 or 4 inches, fire brick can be used, and these 
should be set on their edge, especially between the boil- 
ers, as they will take firmer hold and be less likely to 
fall down. The boilers should be so constructed as to 
have from 6 to 8 inches water above the centre, in 
order that the brick fitted in between them may be 
longer on the upper than on the lower side, and so be 
prevented from falling through. 



CAUSES OF BOILERS EXPLODING AND FLUES 

COLLAPSING. 

The explosion of boilers and collapsing of flues pro- 
ceed from various causes, a few of which we will endeavor 
to show. First, we will speak of the explosions of former 
years, and then refer to some of modern days, and com- 
pare them together. 

In former times boilers were seldom made more than 
half the length of those in present use. The common 
length for steamboat boilers was 16, 18 and 20 feet, and 
being so short, they were sooner filled with water than 
the present large boilers can be, and • also much sooner 
boiled dry or emptied of water by the blowing off of 
steam. As soon as the engine stopped the steam would 



Boilers. 47 

be blowing off, carrying more or less of the water in the 
boiler w^th it, and consequently required more regular 
attention to the water than the boilers of the preserit 
day, owing to the additional length. The extra length 
of the boilers of the present day allows about double the 
room for steam, and by opening the furnace doors and 
flue caps, there is but little necessity for blowing off 
steam compared to that of former days. 

We would also state that, although the long boilers 
generate more steam in the same length of time, in pro- 
portion to the amount of fuel used, than the short ones, 
yet when either of the engines are stropped, the short boil- 
ers will commence blowing off steam almost instantly, and 
that with the furnace doors and flue caps open. The 
reason of this is, that the heat is much greater on the 
short than it is on the long boilers. Hence we 
believe the principal cause of explosions in former 
times to have been the small amount of water that 
was carried on the top of the flues in the boiler. 
The lower gauge cock, which was also the water 
gauge, was placed at about IJ or 2 inches above the 
top of the flues, and the upper cock was about 2J or 3 
inches above this. Now while long boilers generally 
carried from 5 to 6 inches of water on the top of the 
flues they had scarcely any occasion to blow off steam : 
and if it is considered necessary at the present day to 
carry a greater amount of water than formerly for safety, 
this proves that the lower water gauge cock carried water 
too low for safety, and had it been carried in short boilers 
in proportion as it is now carried in long ones, the lower 
gauge cocks instead of being IJ or 2 inches, would 
have been 8 or 10 inches above the top of the flues, 



48 The Practical Engineer. 

and this would have prevented many of the short boilers 
from blowing up, and the same amount of steam blown 
off as soon as the engine was stopped would have made 
them nearly as safe as the long boilers. 

Taking all things into consideration, it is a wonder 
thait explosions have not been of more frequent occur- 
rence. There was something radically wrong in the 
former construction of engines. I^^o doubt many good 
boats have been blown up for want of doctors to keep 
up a regular supply of water during long stoppages at 
wood yards, landing passengers, &c. It w^as formerly 
customary to stop boats in the channel of the river, and 
send or receive passengers from the shore in a yawl. 
During these stoppages more or less steam would be blown 
off, and it was impossible to pump any water into the 
boilers until the boat could be got under way again. 
Sometimes, in receiving or discharging passengers, where 
the width of the river would admit, the boat would run 
around in a large circle to keep the engines in motion 
for the purpose of supplying the boilers with water ; 
and at wood-yards, the wheels were unshipped for the 
same purpose. 

Very soon, however, single engines were succeeded by 
double, which proved of no advantage, for it was more 
diflScult than ever to supply the boilers with water when 
the engine was stopped. If the boilers were supplied at 
all, the water wheel must be kept in motion, and often 
the shore engine could not be run at all. To run the 
outside wheel to pump up water would probably take as 
much steam as it would require to run the boat, and to 
supply the boilers at such an expense would have been 
bad policy. This shows that there was something want- 
ing in the machinery to make it complete. 



Boilers. ; 49 

Not having had time to ascertain the particulars, or 
to make any inquiries whether there were any doctors 
used previous to this, we cannot, therefore, give any 
definite information on the subject. The first doctor we 
heard of was used on a small steamer called the Orleans^ 
and some four years elapsed after this before they were 
deemed so important as to become general. It was about 
this time that engines Avere changed from single to 
double, and this plan was adopted upon the steamer 
Missouri^ a large seven-boiler boat. Immediately after 
this the doctors came into general use, and are now con- 
sidered indispensable, especially enlarge steamers. We 
can now stop our steamers when and where Ave please, 
and as long as may be required, without any fear of 
want of water from not running the engines, for the 
doctor is ready at all times independent of the main 
engine. 

We will here state some particulars in relation to the 
explosion of boilers, and also mention the kind of boilers 
used, and where they exploded. The first was the 
Moselle^ a small three-boiler boat, that exploded while 
putting out from Cincinnati, and killed about one hun- 
dred and fifty persons. We were well acquainted with 
both the engineers, the principal one having worked at 
a shop in Wheeling in which we were a partner. The 
Moselle made use of the short boilers, and had no doc- 
tor. She exploded when about putting out,, immediately 
after starting the engines. The Ben Franhlin had 
started just ahead, and we understand the captain of the 
Moselle boasted that he would beat her. I have no doubt 
that the steam was held in as long as possible to make 
a display, and to enable her to pass the boat ahead, 
5 



50 The Practical Engineer. 

and all to get a name. But the experiment cost too 
much. It was paying too dear for the whistle. 

I ask attention to this case, as she was in the act of 
rounding out and was small and heavily laden. When 
a boat is rounding out it usually lists to the one side. 
Might not the water in the boilers have been low and the 
flues on the high side of the boat bare ? In the mean- 
time, the flues thus exposed to the fire would become red 
hot, and so soon as the boat straightened up what else 
could be expected than an explosion by the water coming 
in contact with them ? And here we would earnestly 
recommend to the captains and engineers of boats, in 
all cases of rounding, both in landing and departing, or 
in any other position in which the boat is likely to list, 
to keep the steam low and the water in the boilers high. 
Too much attention cannot be given to this, as we are 
confident that to neglect of this important matter more 
than to any other cause, explosions of boilers on steam- 
boats should be ascribed. 

The Gren. Brown^ a four-boiler steamer running be- 
tween Louisville and New Orleans, burst her boiler 
while putting out from a wood-yard when, about mak- 
ing her second revolution. We were acquainted with 
both her engineers, one of whom was instantly killed. 
The other survived, but had both arms broken. The lat- 
ter worked under the same firm while we were principal 
foreman, at New Albany, Ind. Some forty persons 
were killed by this explosion. We were but little sur- 
prised at the blowing up of this boat, as she was in the 
habit of making '' brag trips' from New Orleans to 
Louisville. The Brown s boilers were short, and she 
had no doctor, and no doubt there was too much steam 



Boilers. 51 

and too little water in the boilers, which was the cause 
of the explosion. 

The Tri' Color burst her low pressure boiler while ly- 
ing at the Wheeling wharf, and killed seven or eight 
persons. I was engaged by the captain to take charge 
of this engine while the boat was in process of building* 
The boiler and engine were second-hand, having former- 
ly been on the steamer Velocipede^ built at Cincinnati. 
The boiler had the fire box and ash bed within it. 
The cylinder was, I b(ilieve, 24 inches in diameter, up- 
right, worked with a walking beam. Fortunately for 
me, I was prevented from taking charge of this engine. 
The name of the engineer who was on at the time of 
the explosion was Hunt. He was said to be a first rate 
engineer. Whether the explosion was caused by want 
of water, defect in the boiler, or too high steam, I am 
unable to say. The boiler was large in diameter and 
fired within. 

The Wyoming^ Kanawha^ Kate Fleming^ Lucy Walk- 
er^ Louisiana^ Oar of Commerce^ Metropolis^ and many 
other boats, have burst their boilers, though we cannot 
say whether they were all lying to or not when the 
explosions took place, but we are inclined to think they 
were making ready to put out when the accidents occur- 
red. 

We will now make some remarks with regard to the 
collapsing of flues. We saw a steamer calkd the Choc- 
humaj that was said to have collapsed her flues while 
under way just below the Falls of the Ohio, on her trip 
downward. She was in the river, and we noticed the 
steam flying around her bow. At that time they were 
trying to get her to shore on the Indiana side. Although 



52 The Practical Engineer. 

it may seem strange to some that a boat could burst her 
boiler or collapse her flues while under way, yet it doe& 
not surprise us, so long as the steam is kept back by 
checking it ofiin the throttle-valve, in order to keep up 
high steam in the boilers. If the engineer should hap- 
pen to have his throttle-valve a little too close, so as to 
\york ofl' less steam than he makes, the boiler must blow 
ofl" steam.; and should this be the case, the steam being 
throttled off so close as to be the cause of its blowing 
off, they no doubt thoughtlessly hang a wrench or two 
on the safety-valve lever, and in this way overload it, 
and explode the boiler or collapse the flues while the 
boat is under way. 

We have frequently heard of explosions when there 
was plenty of water in the boilers, and the engines run- 
ning at the same time. This may be easily accounted 
for in the manner we have referred to ; but we do not 
think this has ever happened on the river while working 
off steam on the engine with an open throttle-valve. It 
is bad policy to throttle the steam off too closely, as it 
causes the engine to labor more, and of course the boat 
to run slower. 

A boat collapsed her flue as she was putting out from 
the Pittsburgh wharf. One of her engineers was in- 
stantly killed and the other died next day. We saw 
both of them. Several other persons were scalded. 

The steamer Fashion collapsed her flue while passing 
through the lock. She had a doctor on board, and no 
doubt there was a sufficient quantity of water in the 
boilers when the explosion took place, but she had too 
much weight on the safety-valve. 

To this, we believe, may be attributed the explosion 



Boilers. 53 

of all the boilers heretofore alluded to. Of all the flues 
that have collapsed on the steamers above referred to, 
but one of them, that we are aware of, had a doctor for 
supplying the boilers with water in case of an emergency- 
And all the boilers (we except the Louisiana — never 
having seen her, we are not positive as to the length of 
her boilers — however, we are inclined to think they were 
short,) were shorter than those used on large steamers 
of the present day. 

Now, when we compare the long boilers with the short 
ones, we find that there is not one-fourth the danger of 
them exploding ; but as much steam cannot be made, in 
proportion to the amount of iron used, with the long as 
with the short boilers. 

As a general thing, the flues are not made as strong 
as the boiler hull. The flues of large boilers, 40 and 
42 inches in diameter, should be j^ of an inch thicker 
than the boiler hull iron ; that is, all flues 14, 16 and 

17 inches in diameter, should be jq inch thick, and for 

18 inches and upwards in diameter, the thickness of the 
iron should be increased in proportion to the increased 
diameter of the flues. The reason of this is the pressure 
is always on the outside of the flue, and on the inside 
of the boiler. Now it is plain that any cylinder will 
bear far more pressure from within than from without. 
Consequently that which is subjected to the greater pres- 
sure should have the greater strength. A 40 inch boiler, 
carrying 120 lbs. steam, inside pressure, I would con- 
sider safer than the same boiler converted into a flue 
with 60 lbs. steam, outside pressure. The pressure from 
the inside is resisted by the adhesiveness of the iron, 
which offers but little resistance to pressure from the 

6* 



64 The Practical Engineer. 

outside. A 34 inch boiler, J inch thick, is allowed 135 
Bbs. steam to the square inch, a 40 inch boiler is allow- 
ed 115 lbs., a 46 inch boiler is allowed 100 lbs. Ac- 
cording to this proportion, 180 lbs. would be allowed to 
an 18 inch boiler. Now, I consider the 46 inch boiler 
safer with 100 lbs. inside pressure, than the 18 inch 
boiler converted into a flue for the same boiler with 100 
lbs. outside pressure. 

Another cause of collapsing of flues is, the water be- 
ing sufiered to get too low in the boilers, the dry part 
of the flue being exposed to the fire becomes weakened 
and gives way under pressure of the steam. And still 
another cause is, the carrying of steam too high in 
boilers. Flues should be made as round as possible, for 
if they have flat places in them they are much more lia- 
ble to collapse. 

We have never heard of long boilers, say from 30 to 
40 feet, blowing up. But we do not wish it to be in- 
ferred from this that they cannot be blown up. Now, 
when a boat is detained, for the purpose of discharging 
or receiving passengers, although the furnace doors and 
flue caps are thrown open, the fire remaining in the fur- 
nace is quite sufficient to explode or collapse the flues of 
the short boilers ; yet the same fire under the long boilers 
would not, and could not do any harm, and if let alone, 
would burn out. To explode them at all would i^equire 
additional fuel. A double length boiler, 40 feet, as we 
have already shown, will not generate as much s-team as 
two 20 feet boilers, and the amount of steam less will 
be just in proportion to the diff*erence of heat in the first 
20 feet of the boiler, where the fire lies, and the last 20 
feet, where it is much fainter. The heat of the fire being 



Boilers. 55 

much stronger, in proportion to the amount of iron used, 
and the water being carried much loAver than at present, 
was one of the great causes of explosions of former days. 



COPPER PIPES FILLED WITH WATER, 

USED FOR GRATE BARS. 

About thirty-five years since I recollect the steamer 
Aurora, which had copper tubes about 2 inches diameter, 
used for grate bars. Being young at the time, and not 
acquainted with the engineers, I did not ascertain what 
their object was in using them, but will give you my 
opinion. In the first place, in those days the ash pits 
were only about 8, 10 and 12 inches deep, and fire on 
top and below made the bars red hot; the ash pit being 
paved in with brick, I have no doubt they burnt out 
grate bars very fast, and suppose this might be one 
object for using the copper tubes. Another reason 
might be to assist in generating more steam by using up 
the heat that would be in the red hot grate bars. I re- 
member that every tube had on the end an oblong cap, 
with two bolts, for the purpose of taking off to clean 
them out. I forget how they were attached at the back 
end, but suppose it might be to a cross boiler. This 
boat, I believe, had 4 boilers ; the next time I saw her 
they were taken out and grate bars used in their place. 
I suppose the reasons for taking them out were, there 
would be danger when throwing heavy wood on top 
of them ; and also, in stirring the fires, unless very 
careful, they would spring a leak ; they would also 
be liable to leak more or less at each end where the 



56 The Practical Engineer. 

joints are made; and the copper pipes being about 2 
inches in diameter and filled with water, would be black 
and exclude the air, so as to prevent the fire from burn- 
ino: freelv. 

The engine, which was puppet valve, worked with four 
short levers — they stood square across the cylinders. 
The cross shafts were worked with bevel gearing. 



MATERIALS USED FOR MAKING BOILERS. 

Copper, iron and steel are used for making boilers. 
Copper was used in early days ; on ocean, bay and salt 
river steamers, it was preferred to iron, on account of 
not being liable to corrode, as iron was, from the effects of 
the salt water. The copper boilers cost from six to seven 
times as much as the iron, and they are not as strong. 

I saw one of these large, low pressure copper boilers 
perform on the Chesapeake Bay, on my way to the 
gold mines, to get some information about engines and 
machinery, as we had a number to build for Dr. Hussey, 
Avery »k; Co., of Pittsburgh, for California. Whilst 
traveling on this boat on the bay, I saw there was great 
danger of the boat taking fire, as the boiler was down 
in the hold, and all around it was filled up with dry pine 
wood, which contained more or less tm^pentine. I thought 
then, and do still think, it very dangerous to crowd the 
wood too close around the furnace, for a spark might 
set it almost instantly in a blaze. In such boats I would 
advise to have more room in front of the boilers, for the 
storage of wood, so as to keep it out of the reach of 
sparks and danger from the heat of the furnace. 



Boilers. 67 



IRON BOILERS 



Wrought iron boilers are almost universally used, it 
being the cheapest and best material known for this 
purpose. In early days, the boiler and flue iron was 
heated in an oven red hot, and bent over cast iron plates 
made to suit the difFerent diameters. This was a good 
plan in some respects, and very bad in others ; it was 
good on account of softening the iron, it was more plia- 
ble, easier calked, and less liable to break and crack at 
the holes in drifting. But it was bad on account of 
opening the pores of the iron; the heating raised a 
heavy scale on each side of the sheet, making it lighter 
than before ; the boiler was not so smooth, stiff, or 
strong, and it required a great deal more time to heat 
it than to bend it in the rolls. 



CAST IRON BOILERS. 

Cast iron boilers have sometimes been used. I saw 
one that was employed to run a small engine. There is 
another kind of boiler built at Angelica, New York, 
that has the inner sides made of cast iron, with copper 
tubes, and the outer shell wrought iron. This is a costly 
and complicated boiler, hard to clean out, and almost 
impossible to repair at any reasonable cost when out of 
order. Such boilers are hardly worth putting up, unless 
room become such an object that no other kind could be 
put in the place. 



58 The Practical Engineer . 



GLASS BOILERS. 

Glass boilers have been used for small models, and 
also for running small engines for public exhibition. In 
these boilers you can see the water boiling up and foam- 
ing under a full pressure of steam, which becomes white 
when it comes out from the cylinder, or is blown off 
from tlie boiler at the safety valve ; but when confined, 
it is invisible. You can see through the boiler, with a 
full head of steam up, just as transparent as though it 
was entirely empty. I have seen four of these boilers 
in operation in Pittsburgh, three of them on exhibition 
driving glass engines, two of them driving the low 
pressure steam engine Monitor. You could see the 
piston head moving up and down in the cylinder, also 
the force and air pump, valves, &c. in motion when the 
engine was running. The cylinder and heads, piston 
rod and head, valve rod and valve, steam chest and 
walking beam, pitman and pillar blocks, water wheels 
and boilers, &c., were made of variegated colors of 
fine glass. It was the most splendid piece of work- 
manship ever exhibited in Pittsburgh. There was 
one here some years before this, but not so complete. 
Oliver Evans also used a glass boiler to experiment on 
the fusible metal for his safety guard for steam boats. 

DIRECTIONS FOR BUILDING BOILER WALLS, 
STACKS, &c. 

If you are building in the city, the first thing is to 
get the grade from the City Regulator. This may be 



Boilers. 59 

the means of saving you thousands of dollars in after 
years, as by building at random many have had to pull 
down their buildings and make them to suit the grade. 
The foundation for good substantial buildings should 
always be below the frost, which is generally from three 
to four feet deep, but some extra cold seasons it has 
been from five to six feet deep. Stone is always better 
than brick for a good foundation, and should be built 
two or three courses above the ground. Stone will resist 
the frost and the wet better than brick. Brick founda- 
tions, especially in a damp place, will always be more or 
less wet, and cause the wall, the plaster and the paper 
to be damp several feet above ground; and unless the 
bricks are very hard, they will waste w^ay and the plas- 
ter fall off the walls. 

Another cause of buildings cracking is, when the build- 
ing is on the side of a hill, one part of the foundation 
is several feet above ground, whilst the other is as much 
below, and the sun beaming on one side more than the 
other, the foundation on that side may be frozen hard 
when the other is several feet below its reach, and the 
frost expands the walls and causes them to break in 
settling, &c. The mortar becomes decomposed, and 
loses its strength and falls off, and the building, in con- 
sequence of being damp, is rendered unhealthy and un- 
pleasant. 

In commencing to build the foundation, see that the 
ground is equally firm and solid upon which you are to 
build, by examining it with a battering ram or sledge ; 
and if there should be soft and spongy places here and 
there, which is often the case from a variety of causes, 
let them be hammered down and filled up until perfectly 



60 The Practical Engixeek. 

solid. If the ground is marshy and soft, as is some- 
times the case and will not allow of this, then piles should 
be driven in endwise and plank or heavy timbers laid on 
top, as the case may require. The neglect of this care 
about the foundation is the cause why so many buildings 
after having been put up have in a short time been 
cracked, causing the shutters and window frames to be 
thrown out of square, so that the one would neither 
shut nor the 'other hoist. In commencing to lay the 
foundation, the largest stones should be in the bottom, 
and laid on the softest parts of the ground. If there is 
any danger of water soaking in, water cement ought to 
be used ; and if the building should be put up in very warm 
weather, the stones and bricks should be wet, and every 
tier of the stone and brick work slushed or grouted 
with thin mortar, so that every crevice in the wall may 
be filled up and the bricks and stones take a firm bond. 



HEIGHT OF STACKS. 

No certain rules can be laid down for the height of 
stacks for several reasons. Much depends on the position. 
It is difficult to get a draft in a place surrounded by 
high hills, as the current of air passing over, often by a 
whirling motion blows down into the stack. In cities 
this is seen to be the case when there is a high wall on 
one side and a low one on the other. In such positions 
the higher the stack is raised the better. To a certain 
extent, the rule, " long stacks for long boilers," is good ; 
still I have known high stacks to draw badly, and low 
stacks to draw well. Care should be taken that the 



Boilers. 61 

opening of the stack be sufficiently ^Yide, if it be too 
small the draft cannot be good. 

Stacks should always be high enough to carry away 
the smoke and sparks from the top of the building. It 
is possible to have too much draft ; when this is the case 
the heat is carried away fromx the boiler without having 
time to act on it. A safe rule is, to have the opening in 
the stack fully as large as the opening, in the flues of 
the boiler or boilers, or better, one-fifth larger. 

Care should be taken not to have the stacks any nar- 
rower inside on the top than at the bottom, as it would 
be calculated to retard or destroy the draft, but have it all 
of a size. If there is any difference, it would be better 
to be a shade larger at the top. Three or four courses 
of the top bricks on the stack should be laid in w^ater 
cement, as it is more durable than the common lime mor- 
tar, which very soon decomposes on the top courses, and 
the joints open and the bricks spread, and in a few years 
come tumbling down whenever a heavy blast of w^ind 
occurs, and endangers the lives of those below. Stone 
coping on the top would be still better, but a little more 
costly ; and some have thin cast iron plates, cast in one 
or two pieces, and bolted together, owing to the size of 
the stack, with a sm-all flange projecting down 1 inch or 
more to fit the outside brick of the stack and to keep it 
from spreading, and the plate ought to be wide enough 
to project from 2 to 4 or 6 inches, owing to the size of 
the stack, on the outside, to throw off the water. 



B 



62 The Practical Engineer. 



LOCATION AND HEIGHT OF STACKS, 4c., 
TO GUARD AGAINST FIRES. 

In the erection and construction of buildings for 
mills, factories, ic, all things should be taken into 
consideration before you commence to build, so thst 
every thing may be so arranged as not to need changes 
after the work is beorun. You should have your stack 
located on the side of the mill toward which the wind gen- 
erally blows, so that the smoke and sparks may be car- 
ried away from the mill, and also some distance from 
the surrounding houses. This can easily be done, 
especially in the country. I know the wind varies and 
changes, but I mean, to get the advantage as much as 
possible of the general current. The stacks should be 
built some distance above the highest part of the build- 
ing ; it gives a better draft, and carries the smoke and 
sparks away from the roof and also from the surrounding 
buildings. The sparks are more likely to die before alight- 
ing. Some persons may say they seldom use wood, but 
all use it more or less for kindling, &c. 

I will mention some fires that originated in this way ; 
two of them I was at when thev were burninor, and in 
the other case I was called upon to examine the engine, 
&c., after the mill and neighboring dwelling houses were 
consumed. The first I mention, was Michael Stack 
house's engine shop, in Pittsburgh. It caught fire about 
twelve o'clock midday, by sparks coming out of the boiler 
stack, and alighting on the roof. They usually used 
coal for their boiler, but at this time they were burn- 
ing the shavings from the pattern shop, and t\v 



Boilers. 63 

stack being entirely too low, the sparks fell on the roof 
and burnt up the shop, engine and patterns in a few 
minutes, notwithstanding the fire engines were promptly 
on the ground. Had the stack been high, the sparks 
would most likely have been blown away or died out be- 
fore they fell. 

I Avas an eye-witness to the burning of a large steam 
engine shop in Wheeling, formerly used by Smith, Wal- 
lace & Co., but latterly occupied as a glass warehouse, 
and at the time stored with considerable amount of ware. 
It took fire about day-break, by a spark or sparks 
coming out of the glasshouse stack alongside of the 
building, and owned by the same person, Thomas Swe- 
ney. I would remark here, that this stack was also 
very low, and the fire engines here were promptly at 
work, but notwithstanding this, both buildings were burnt 
to ashes in a few minutes. The third I will mention 
was Mr. Wilson's grist mill, a few miles from the city of 
Pittsburgh. The mill took fire in the night, said to be 
from sparks out of the stack, and the wind being high, 
set fire to the dwelling houses across the road, and 
some distance from the mill, and being in the night, and 
no help at hand, the mill and houses were burnt to 
ashes immediately. Had the dwelling houses been at 
the other end of the mill, I have no doubt they would 
have been perfectly safe, as the wind was in the other 
direction ; so I believe it was in the other two cases. In 
the first one the stack was at the wrong end of the 
building, and in the second the engine shop was on the 
wrong side of the glasshouse stack, and the same with 
the buildings last mentioned. I was called on to exam- 
ine the engines, &c., of this mill after the fire. 



64: The Phactical Engineer. 

The fourth case was one of the most splendid, new 
and largest grist mills in its day in Westmoreland 
county, belonging to Major Weaver, of Greensburg. It 
took fire one morning while they were at breakfast ; 
was supposed to have caught from the stove pipe of the 
office in the second story. If the pipe came out at the 
side of the building, as is too often customary in such 
cases, it probably did not come through far enough 
to keep the heat and blaze off the building. In 
case of a large fire in the stove, and especially if the 
wind was blowing against it, it would blow the heat, 
sparks and blaze, if any, against the building and set it 
on fire. This is one of the ways it might have caught; 
and ajiother is, that the stove pipe may not have been 
properly secured between the outside of the pipes and 
the wood work of the building ; the hole for the pipe 
may have been too small to keep the wood work cool ; it 
may also not have had a lining of iron, stone, brick, or 
crock, as it should have had, and from negligence and 
want of forethought in this way, it no doubt was the 
cause of burning up in a few minutes. 

One more instance and the last that I will mention. 
We were putting up an engine in a large saw mill, on 
the Allegheny Mountains ; they had a temporary stove 
and pipe erected to keep the hands warm whilst at work, 
until the mill was finished. I told the foreman that he 
ought to have his stove pipe fixed better than it was. 
I reasoned with him, and told him it was very dangerous, 
&c.; he said it was only a temporary concern, to warni 
the hands for a few days until the mall was finished..| 
The pipe went straight up through the roof, and one 
side of the pipe was leaning against it on the wood ; the 



BOILEKS. 65 

mill was high and the pipe very long, and I sup- 
pose on this account they thought there was less danger 
than Avould be with a short one. The morning was des- 
perately cold ; I put on a large fire in the stove, and 
before I knew what I was about, either I or my little 
boy discovered the mill to be on fire. It was early in 
the morning, and I think there was not more than one 
hand besides myself and boy; there was not a single 
bucket to be had, and the storehouse belonging to the 
mill was some distance off. There was an overhead 
cistern, which was frozen ; I broke the ice, carrying it in 
my hands, and was immediately on the roof in time, and 
laid it on the high side of the roof along side of the 
stove pipe, and the flame and heat melting the ice and 
I rubbing it over the burning parts, was instrumental in 
putting out the fire. This fire no doubt was put out ow- 
ing to the fact that we discovered it at the very beginning. 
Had it gone on five minutes longer the building would 
have soon been in ashes. I do not suppose we could have 
raised half a dozen of men in the neighborhood to help, 
it being on the mountain. 

I mention these five establishments that were burnt, so 
that in the erection of mills, factories, &c., you may 
see the necessity of building your stacks high, and 
in that part of the mill that the wind will most gen- 
erally carry away the smoke and sparks from the 
building. There is also danger from large flakes of 
burning soot alighting on the roof from the stack. 
I would also state that you cannot be too careful 
with stove pipes and chimneys. See to it that the 
opening is cut out large enough, and made secure, 
so that if the stove pipe were red hot there would be 



dt) The Practical Exgixeek. 

no danger of it setting fire to the building. Let me 
prescribe how this should be done. Say your stove pipe is 
6 inches in diameter ; cut out the hole in the floor and 
lathing below at least 12 inches, or more, if the space 
between the joists will admit ; then get three sheet iron 
rings, one 8, one 10 and one 12 inches in diameter, with 
a flange on each ring riveted on to a sheet iron plate 
large enough to cover the hole above, with 1 inch or 
more lap all around on the floor ; then set the stove pipe 
in the centre, and have three or four lugs riveted on the 
above plate to keep it in its place, leaving 1 inch be- 
tween the pipe and the first ring for air to pass through. 
It would be advisable to let the ring next the pipe stand 
down tw^o or three inches or more below the lath, and 
then plaster the outside crevice close to the outer ring. 
Stove pipe CDming sideways out of frame buildings, should 
run out, if possible, at least 2 feet, and then be carried 
up to the top of the building, so as to keep the smoke 
from blacking the glass and house, and also to make it 
more secure from fire. 1 believe thousands of buildings 
have been burnt from stove pipes in this and various 
other ways. It is just what might be expected where a 
§tove pipe is put out at the side of a frame house, reach- 
ing say 6. or 8 inches through the side of the building^ 
the blaze sometimes coming out, and the wind blowing 
it back on the building*. 

There is also danger from chimneys used for steam 
boilers if not properly secured. Where you do not find it 
convenient to use sheet iron casing, yQu onay use cast 
iron, or stone or crock, .&c., ,but there should be fully as 
much care to make the stacks, pipes, &c. £re-proof as iy^ 
putting up the building. You talk of steam being d.ap- 



Boilers. 67 

gerous, and so it is, unless properly cared foi\ and laws 
are made to inspect boilers and engines, &c.; why not do 
the same with the use of fire ? It is equally as danger- 
ous as steam, and destroys millions of dollars' worth of 
property yearly, as well as many lives, by burning 
ships, steamers, houses, &c..; and you say these things 
cannot be helped^ they were accidents. So I say the ex- 
plosions were accidents also ; but the one could have been 
helped just as much as the other, if it is careless- 
ness, which I acknowledge it most generally is, but not 
always ; for there have been some explosions mysterious 
and difficult to account for, as well as some fires that 
have originated no one knows how, perhaps from spon- 
taneous combustion,^ or some other unknown cause. 



HOW TO SET BOILERS AND CLOSE IN THE 

BRICK WORK. 

In setting stationary boilers, the end where the blow- 
oflf is should be about 1 inch low to every 20 feet, so that 
when you clean and wash out your boilers the water will 
run out, instead of having to be bailed and swept out, as 
k ofteu the case. The boilers should never be put up 
close to the brick stack, because then the expansion of 
the boiler, which is about 4^0 of an inch to the foot, will 
all be one way, and press the fire front out and cause it 
to lean over so that the doors will not stay shut unless 
braced; besides, they will be in danger of falling down, 
and may wound or kill those within their reach. After 
building the stone foundation a few inches above ground, 
then build the brick work about 2 feet high, and let the 



68 The Practical Engineer. 

wall dry a few days before putting the boilers in. 
Build your bridge wall at the end of the grate bars, and 
also a foundation for the boiler stand to rest on. Then 
put timbers across the walls, and roll in your boilers 
and block them up ; then set your fire front, making it 
to lean inward at J or j% of an inch to the foot, so as 
to brace against the boiler expansion, and to keep the 
furnace doors shut. The space between the boilers on 
the outside and the wall, for small boilers, ought to be 

3 inches, and for large boilers 36 inches and upward, 

4 inches is plenty ; and the Boilers should be constructed 
so as to have the same distance between them, then you 
can use brick for closing in, as tile is expensive and can- 
not always be had. Leave a recess in each side of the 
furnace walls at the front end, one or two bricks below 
the tops of the grate bars, and 6 or 7 feet back, to re- 
ceive a single lining of fire brick up to the low water 
gauge. The boilers should always be closed in at the low 
water cock, never above, and if the courses of brick do 
not come exactly right, it would be safer and better to 
close 1 or 2 inches below. The flues in the boiler should 
be constructed so that the lower gauge will be 5 
or 6 inches or more above the centre, so as to give the 
boilers a chance to hold the bricks up from tumbling 
down, as they are sure to do when put in at the centre; 
and if you should close in above the centre for the pur- 
pose of holding up the bricks, as is frequently done, you 
will be sure to spring your boiler and cause it to leak 
and crack at the rivet holes. This is the reason why so 
many boilers have to be repaired, hence the necessity of 
having the lower gauge 5 or 6 inches above the centre 
of the boiler. The walls should be 18 inches thick for 



Boilers. 69 

a first-rate job, 13 might do for some temporary con- 
cerns. If built in warm weather the brick should be 
wet, and the walls either grouted or slushed, so as to 
cause the mortar to take a bond. If the furnace 

should be too deep or too shallow, this can be remedied 
J. ' 

in part by raising or lowering the back grate bar bearer 
a few inches. The bridge wall should come up within 
from 4 to 6 inches of the boiler ; it is sometimes close at 
the end of the grate bars, and sometimes a little farther 
back, especially about saAV mills where long wood is used 
for fuel. Sometimes the boiler Avails are bound together 
by six or eight cast iron plates, three or four on each 
side, with a plate the whole length of the walls, even 
with the top and outside of the walls. This prevents 
the wall from spreading and opening with the heat of the 
furnace, and also the expansion of the boilers. Those 
who are not willing to go to this expense use wood, and 
the majority do without. But there is no job complete 
without being iron bound, because the walls are sure to 
crack and spread ; this destroys the draft, lets the heat 
escape, fills the place with smoke, and may be the means 
of firing the building by sparks, &c. See to it that this 
part of the work is properly done. It is customary to 
leave a temporary door in the side, and sometimes one 
in the back of the flue, to get in and clean out the ashes. 
Cast iron doors and frames are the best, but if these 
cannot be had, build your brick on top of a few bars of 
iron, and close in single thickness with brick, which will 
have to be taken down and built up every time you go 
in and out. Sometimes the fire fronts are fastened by 
bolts running the whole length of the wall, and some- 
times half length, and some do without. Sometimes we 



70 The Practical Engineer. 

build tAYo or three pieces of 1 inch gas pipe in the wall, 
to see how far the flame reaches under the boiler, and 
how it operates. If you have no pipe, leave your bricks 
J inch apart for that purpose, and have a stopper for 
the. same. Some build a damper in the stack, some on 
top of the stack, and others have it to slide up and down 
at the end of the boiler where the flue enters the stack. 
As the damper when closed will cause the smoke and 
blaze to come out at the furnace doors, I prefer the ash 
pit door, as this shuts the air out from below and stops 
the fire from burning, and at the same time leaves the 
flue in the stack clear for the smoke to pass ofi: 

Lastly, there is a part of vital importance, seldom 
done right, either for want of knowing how, or to 
avoid labor and expense ; this is the closing in of the 
space between the end of the boilers and the brick stack. 
This has reference only to cylinder boilers. To do this 
right it is necessary to build the brick work at the end 
of the boiler or boilers even with the top of the boilers 
at the back end, and have a straight smooth surface all 
the way across, then have an ofiset in the stack 4J 
or 9 inches wide, or more, and then you can build fire 
brick or tile solid to the ofi'set in the stack, so as to al- 
low the boiler to come and go under the brick or tile 
covering as it expands or contracts. This is very easily 
done. You can commence the ofi'set in the stack and build 
it to the exact height after the boiler is set ; and if your 
stack should be built without an ofi'set, it is a very easy 
matter to build a temporary 9 inch wall alongside of 
the stack for this purpose. The covering over the space. 

between the boiler and stack mav be built fast to the 

t/ 

boiler, in case the recess on the stack is not wide 



Pa^e.35. 




ir^ 



J'3 ie.50. 




Boilers. 71 

enough ; but I prefer it on the stack, which should be 
wide enough if made 9 inches. The boiler need never 
be more than 1 or 2 inches clear of the stack, as the 
boiler only expands -£^ of an inch to the foot. Cast iron 
plates could also be used here, if they were not consider- 
ed too expensive. This is the only way to make a com- 
plete job of this part of the work. (For particulars, 
see plate A, with side view of boiler.) 



STEEL BOILERS. 

'^Some very practical, thorough and interesting ex- 
periments have been made in Prussia with steel steam 
boilers, an account of which has been published in Din- 
gier s Polytechnic Journal. A steel boiler of the egg- 
end shape, 4 feet in diameter and 30 feet in length, 
without flues, was tried. It had a steam drum 2 feet in 
diameter and 2 feet in height, and the plates were 
^ of an inch in thickness. Beside it there was placed 
another boiler, similar in every respect, excepting that 
the plates were of iron 0.414 of an inch in thickness. 
The steel boiler was tested by hydraulic pressure up to 
195 pounds on the inch, without showing leakage, and 
both the iron and steel boilers were worked under a 
pressure of 65 pounds on the inch for about one year 
and a half. During this period, the steel boiler genera- 
ted 25 per cent, more steam than the iron one, and when 
they were thoroughly examined after eighteen months 
practical working, there was less scale in the steel than 
in the iron boiler. The former evaporates 11-66 cubic 
feet of water per hour ; the iron boiler 9-37 cubic feet. 



72 The Practical Engineer. 

The quantity of coal consumed was on an average 2,706 
pounds for the steel one in twelve hours, and 2,972 
pounds for the iron boiler. The plates of the steel 
boiler over the fire were found to be uninjured, while 
those of the iron one were about worn out. In Prussia 
several worn-out plates of iron boilers have lately been 
replaced with steel, which, it is stated, lasts four times 
as long. As steel is twice as strong as iron, thinner 
plates of the former may be employed for boilers, and 
more perfect riveting can be secured. A greater quan- 
tity of steam can also be generated in the steel boiler 
on account of its thin plates, and thus much fuel may be 
economized. Such steam boilers should engage the 
attention of all who make and use steam boilers for 
engineering and manufacturing purposes/' 

The above is from the Scientific American, I refer 
to it to show that there is evidently an error in the 
statement of the relative durability of the two kinds of 
boilers. It is well known that an iron boiler ayIU, with 
ordinary care, last from ten to twenty years. In the 
case mentioned where the boiler was worn out in eighteen 
months, there must have been some other cause than 
the material of which it was made. I have no doubt 
that the thickness of the boiler more than 4-10 inch 
was the main cause ; and I am persuaded that if the 
case had been reversed, Avith the iron \ inch and 
the steel 4-10 inch thick, then the result would have 
been the very opposite — the steel boiler would have 
given way first. The outside of the boiler at the laps, 
being so far from the water, is kept constantly at a high 
degree of heat, and consequently soon burns and cracks. 



Boilers. 73 



STRENGTH OF STEAM BOILERS. 

"I do not intend here entering into the causes of the 
large number of boiler explosions that take place, but 
having lately read in the daily press accounts of the 
bursting of several locomotive boilers, it struck me that 
some simple and general rule by which to ascertain 
their strength would be useful to all who either make or 
use them ; and especially because, although the general 
principle herein conveyed is well known, still I have 
found few, especially amongst practical men, who have 
any idea of the actual pressure it would be safe to test 
boilers to. I therefore subjoin a table I have worked 
out, which shows one-third of the pressure per square 
inch a boiler 1 inch in diameter Avill bear without 
bursting, and no material should be loaded with a 
greater strain. For boilers of any size it is only ne- 
cessary to divide the number of pounds in the table, 
opposite the thickness of plate used, by the diameter in 
inches ; the result will be the greatest load that ought to 
be put on a safety valve in pounds, per square inch. 
The iron used is understood to be of the best quality, 
with a tensile strength equal to 70,000 pounds per 
square inch. Although all boilers should be tested to 
the extent given by the table, they should not be regu- 
larly worked up to that pressure, on account of their 
depreciation by wear and tear, by oxidation and other- 
wise, which, according to the time they have been in 
use, will of course proportionately lessen their efficiency. 

l-8th-inch plate, 2,500 pounds. 

8-16th-inch plate, 3,750 pounds. 

7 



74 The Practical Engineer. 

l-4th-inch plate, 5,000 pounds. 

5-16th-mch plate, 6,250 pounds. 

8-8th-inch plate,.-. 7,500 pounds. 

7-16th-incli plate, 8,750 pounds. 

J-inch plate, .10,000 pounds. 

9-16th-inch plate, 11,250 pounds. 

5-8th-incli plate, 12,500 pounds. 

3-4tli-inch plate, 15,000 pounds. 

"Suppose, for instance, we have a locomotive boiler 
made of 5-16tli-inch plate (their usual thickness) anc 
45 inches diameter, the table would give 6,250 45= 
139 lbs., the greatest amount to which the safety valve 
should be loaded ; whereas another boiler, 35 inche.^ 
diameter, and the same thickness of plate, would, by 
the same rule (6,250 35.) bear 178 pounds per square 
inch, without any extra strain on the iron. If, how 
ever, we make the 35-inch boiler of l-4th-inch iron 
we find opposite l-4th-inch, 5,000, which, divided by 
35, gives 143 pounds, showing that l-4th-inch plate in 
a 35-inch boiler, will bear more pressure than 5-16th 
inch plate in a 45-inch boiler. This also shows con 
elusively that by making two boilers of different diam 
eters, that have to work at the same pressure, of the 
same thickness of plate, that either one is too weak, oi 
there is a waste of material in the other."- — Wm, Tos 
hach^ in Scientific American » 



INSPECT YOUR STEAM BOILERS. 

'' Boiler explosions are becoming remarkably preva 
lent. Scarcely a day passes but what, from some par 
of the country, remote or near, Ave receive intelligence 



Boilers. 75 

)f a great disaster. It is perhaps inevitable that some 
)oilers should explode, out of the vast number in daily 
ise on land and sea, in the factory and on the rail ; it 
ivould be strange indeed, if that curse of humanity — 
carelessness, was not felt in its magnitude ; for, reason 
and theorize as we may, it is a well-settled fact in the 
Uinds of scientific and practical men, here and abroad, 
that to this cause most of the accidents Avith steam may 
be traced. It is carelessness that makes boilers on bad 
plans, of poor workmanship and material ; it is careless- 
ness which omits the thorough inspection which boilers 
should have every thirty days ; it is carelessness which 
permits crownsheets and flues to be burnt from scarcity 
of water, and water-bottoms, legs, and fire boxes to be 
bent, burnt and distorted from deposits of mud, scale, 
or refuse that is suffered to accumulate ; it is careless- 
ness which allows safety valves to be jammed or over- 
loaded, feed pumps to look after themselves, braces to 
be slack where they should be taut, and the pins in the 
braces not turned, or bent over, so that they cannot slip 
out ; such cases have been known. It is more than 
carelessness which allows imperfectly welded wrought- 
iron sleeves for the socket-bolts to be used to cover the 
same, for the water has free access through the open 
seams, and destroys the bolt as quickly as if there was 
no 'protection.' Cast-iron sleeves are now used in the 
best shops', and besides being a perfect protection to the 
socket-bolts, they are more durable and much cheaper. 
From the first hour of its practical operation until the 
day of its final condemnation, a boiler is constantly 
growing weaker, and it should be so cared for that the 
work it is obliged to do is proportionate to its strength 



76 The Practical Engineer. 

each year. To ascertain what the strength is, we must 
test it, and this can be done in a simple, cheap, and ex- 
peditious manner by water and heat. If a boiler be 
filled full of water up to the very safety valves, and all 
apertures closed, when a fire is built in the furnace, the 
water will be expanded, and raise the valve, if the 
boiler is strong enough to withstand the strain, but if it 
is not, the weakest part will be shown and sometimes 
sheets are torn out by this method. Steam is not gen- 
erated from the water during this test, and if a rupture 
does take place in the boiler no one will be injured by 
it. The safety valve must be loaded to the utmost limit 
of strain that it is supposed the boiler will bear ; and if 
the test is favorable, only three-fourths of the load on 
the safety valve must be employed for the working 
pressure. 

"It has never been proved beyond question that a 
steam boiler exploded from any of the theories put 
forth in each disaster. Some persons have a passion 
for ' explaining' matters that they do not understand 
by something else they are ignorant of; and we have 
had hydrogen gas brought forward as an agent in 
causing explosions ; water suddenly flashed into steam 
as another ; electricity for another ; and so on, through 
the categorj\ These are simply excuses on the part of 
some one at fault for the disaster. After a boiler has 
exploded, it seems almost supererogatory to go and look 
at it, and say what caused the disaster. We have heaps 
of smoking ruins, iron bent and blackened, and in most 
cases each part is a fac-similc of every other explosion ; 
the torn sheets are gravely examined and the conclusion 
arrived at is that ^somebodv was to blame.' 



Boilers. 77 

" We have no desire to treat the matter with levity, but 
is it not time that we had more careful superintendence 
of steam boilers and fewer inquests ? In some cases, 
the cause of the accident may be pointed out after the 
explosion, but in such it might have been done equally 
well before. As we have before remarked, it is to be 
expected that some boilers will explode in spite of all 
inspection, just as cannon do with the most careful 
gunners ; but it is a part, and a most important part of 
an engineer's duty, to be thoroughly convinced of the 
soundness and strength of his boiler. When we see 
how seldom accidents of this kind occur to marine boil- 
ers, we have positive proof of the value of thorough 
oversight and watchfulness ; and we feel that we cannot 
speak too strongly or too often upon the necessity 
which exists for prompt, thorough, and frequent in- 
spection of steam boilers." — Scientific American. 



CONCERNING STEAM BOILERS. 

'^ We have in previous numbers of the Scientific Amer^ 
lean frequently called the attention of engineers and 
manufacturers to the condition of their steam boilers ; for 
we have felt, and still feel, that in too many cases they 
are neglected and overlooked. If there is. any depart- 
ment where false economy is out of place it is certainly 
about a steam boiler ; and by this we mean a disposition 
to let repairs go until a more convenient season, or as a 
person once said in our hearing, ' till it gets so that it is 
Avorth mending;' this is false economy. The tailor's 

proverb about ' the stitch in time' is eminently true of 

7* 



78 The Practical Engineer. 

steam and the apparatus driven by, or . the vessels con- 
taining it. All the leaky rivets (if any) should be driven 
tight, slack braces set up to their duty, seams calked 
where they require it, ashes kept away from water-drip 
when it falls on the sheets, clinkers prevented from form- 
ing on grate bars (where anything like decent coal is 
provided, no excuse should be received by manufacturers 
for this neglect), safety valves overhauled and put in 
working condition (too many of them are mere percus- 
sion caps, so to speak), flues swept at least once a week, 
ashes and soot kept out of the smoke box ; every ounce 
of it is a non-conductor that robs the boiler of its right- 
ful heat. In short, every detail and appurtenance of a 
steam boiler requires conscientious, thorough, and con- 
tinual supervision ; then there will be fewer lives lost, 
less property destroyed, and a better class of engineers 
and manufacturers generally. That is the true way to 
raise the wages of engineers and make business pay ; 
elevate the standard of the services rendered, and, our 
word for it, manufacturers will accede to all reasonable 
requests. 

" The terrible effects of carelessness are too apparent 
when steam boilers explode, and blow to the four winds 
of heaven all that a man has been able to accumulate in 
a lifetime of hard labor. See to it, then, you manufac- 
turers, and you, engineers ! that there are no half-way 
measures adopted; that no ^ penny wise and pound fool- 
ish' policy prevails; keep the boilers in the best possible 
repair and condition; buy none but the best fuel; hire 
only capable, conscientious, and sober men to oversee 
them; and the rate of insurance will be lower, higher 
profits will accrue, and steam power be rendered what in 



Boilers. 79 

fact it is — an energetic, easily- managed, and economical 
servant." — Scientific American. 



INCRUSTATION OF BOILERS, 

''We have frequently referred to this subject and the 
different remedies for it. One of the most reliable is 
the ' Anti-incrustation Powder' of Mr. H. N. Winans of 
New York, to which we drew especial attention in our is- 
sue of June 21, 1862. Since then we have seen a num- 
ber of additional testimonials of its operation, and from 
all w^e can learn, it is perfectly reliable. Messrs. Be- 
ment & Dougherty, Philadelphia, after two years suc- 
cessful use, pronounce it uninjurious, and George Shield, 
Chief Engineer of Cincinnati Water Works, after five 
years use, says it not only has no injurious effects, but 
prevents the iron from oxidizing. These valuable re- 
commendations, with many others, induce us to give it 
our approval and to recommend it to all using steam. 
With the high price of fuel and the immense loss in gen- 
erating steam, occasioned by the formation of scale in 
boilers and the consequent injury to the iron by over- 
heating, we consider almost any expenditure an economy 
which will effect a remedy, and this we believe Mr. 
Winans' -material will do without injury to the boiler. 
We therefore advise our readers to make a trial and 
save fuel, repairs, kc,'' -^Scientific American. 



80 The Practical Engineer. 



THE WAY BOILER SCALE IS DEPOSITED. 

^^Carbonate of lime is scarcely soluble at all in pure 
hot water, is a little soluble in pure cold water, and quite 
soluble in water containing carbonic acid. Cold water, 
exposed for a long time to the atmosphere, always ab- 
sorbs its own bulk of carbonic acid ; and if, while thus 
mixed, it comes in contact with carbonate of lime, a 
portion of the stone will be dissolved. Hence the hard 
water of our springs and wells. If this water is placed 
in a boiler and heated, the first action of the heat is to 
drive off the carbonic acid; and this action, with the 
raising of the temperature, deprives the water of its 
power of holding the carbonate of lime in solution. The 
salt is consequently precipitated, and deposited as a hard 
scale in the boiler." — Scientific Americayi. 



RUPTURING BOILERS. 

Boilers are ruptured from different causes, and one 
very common reason is, on account of the brick work on 
the outside and between the boilers being closed in several 
inches above the low water line. This is sometimes done 
designedly for the purpose of super-heating the steam 
by getting more fire surface, but most generally it is 
done carelessly, or for want of thought. Bricklayers 
are not posted up as they should be on this subject, and 
they do not always receive particular charge and in- 
structions how to do this part of the work as it should 
be done, and this is the cause of boilers so often ruptur- 



Boilers. ' 81 

ing and giving way about the low water line. The fire 
operates on the boiler several inches above the low water 
line ; and when the water gets below the regular gauge, 
which it often does, the iron above is heated a great 
deal hotter than the balance of the boiler, sometimes 
almost red hot, and the water rising and falling the iron 
is exposed to frequent and sudden heating and cooling, 
and crystallizes, which makes it brittle and causes it to 
crack from one rivet to another, sometimes the length 
of several sheets at a time. I saw one boiler that gave 
way on the side, blew the brick work down, and scald- 
ed the engineer so that he died shortly after. Boilers 
have given out on the river the same way and from the 
same cause. 

There is another cause which seldom happens, I saw 
a boiler that gave way on the bottom over the fire, which 
the foreman told me was caused by local heat on the 
bottom of the boiler, and the heat being thus confined to 
one spot, became so intense as to burn the boiler and 
cause it to bag, &c. It was caused by burning slack 
and not stirring it up as often as it should have been to 
let the air in and make the blaze run along in the bottom 
of the boiler ; thus the heat became very intense en 
the one spot of the boiler, and caused it to burn not- 
withstanding it might have plenty of water. Another 
cause, is leaving blankets, brooms, &c., in the boiler 
when cleaning out ; and another for want of being pro- 
perly cleaned out. 

Boilers often rupture owing to corrosion. Supply 
and stand pipes underneath the boilers, and also the 
steam pipes on top, being sufi*ered to leak, oxydize and 
waste away the iron very fast. These pipes should be 



82 The Practical Engineer. 

kept j^erfectly tight and dry, in order to keep them 
from speedy decay. Another cause : unless the boiler 
or boilers are kept under a tight roof, they may in 
this .way become so badly rusted in parts as to cause 
them to be so weak as to yield to a heavy pressure. 

After all, boilers have exploded where the cause has 
not been satisfactorily ascertained. We submit whether 
the sudden decomposition of water thrown into a boiler 
red hot, and its conversion into its constituent gases, 
might not cause a boiler to explode. The gas being 
highly inflammable, would take fire, and its effects 
would be the same as the ignition of gunpowder. It is 
ascertained that the increase of heat, unless water be 
added, will not increase the power of steam, but it will 
decompose it into its constituent gases. And perhaps 
electricity, of the nature of which so little is known, 
may be a cause of explosion. 



TO PREVENT BOILERS EXPLODING AND FLUES 

COLLAPSING. 

It was customary, in early days, to put a lead rivet on 
the top of each flue at the back end of the boilers, so 
that if the water should get below the top, the lead 
would melt, and the steam whistling through the rivet 
hole would give the alarm before the flues had time to 
become red hot. It is also a good plan to put one lead 
rivet on each side of each boiler hull, cylinder or flued, 
in the second sheet above the fire at the low water line, 
for the same purpose. The object of putting them in 
both sides of the boiler, is, in case the fire might be hot- 



Boilers. 83 

ter on one side than the other, it would be sure to melt 
without danger of being overheated. There is no 
doubt that the lead rivet in the boiler hulls over the 
fire would melt out first, as the heat here is much greater 
than at the back end of the flues. Lead rivets in the 
course of time might Avaste away, and would have to be 
renewed. 

^^Of the intense heat that steam sometimes attains, 
even without causing explosion, the following instance 
may be cited : the packing of the piston of a steam- 
boat, w^orking with steam of a tension no greater than 
an atmosphere and a half, burst into flame on opening 
the cylinder, at least half an hour after the fire had been 
extinguished. Here it is evident, that any mixture of 
heated water with this steam might have caused ex- 
plosion." 

In France, every steam boiler is required by law to 
be furnished with a safety plug of fusible metal. It is 
composed of tin, three parts ; lead, two parts ; bismuth, 
four parts. 

"Another method which promises to be efi'ectual in 
many cases, is to form a part of the boiler of a plate of 
metal fusible at a comparatively low temperature. Such 
is an alloy of bismuth, lead, and tin, by varying the 
proportions of which a considerable diff*erence in fusi- 
bility may be attained. They ought to be of such a 
mixture as not to melt, until heated beyond the temper- 
ature assumed as the limit of the heat to w^hich it is 
ever desired to raise the steam, but fusible at one con- 
siderably below that at which the boiler becomes red hot. 
From 20° to 40° above the maximum heat the steam 
is meant to attain, will be well suited to the purpose, 



84 The Practical Engineer. 

for they will then melt before any part of the boiler can 
become red hot. These plates must be adapted to the 
upper part of the boiler, and be of course in contact 
with the steam ; they are inserted at the end of tubes 
fitted steam-tight to the boiler. As they are apt to 
soften long before they melt, they ought to be covered 
by a diaphragm of wire gauze. When thus protected, 
they have been found not to give w^ay until they actually 
melt. As different parts of the boiler may acquire dif- 
ferent temperatures, two such plates will be needed 
upon its outer surface, at the tw^o ends ; they ought to be 
as near to the body of the boiler as possible. When 
flues pass through the boiler we conceive that it would 
be a proper precaution to furnish them also with plates, 
of this description, but in this case, the metal might be 
less fusible, and lead unalloyed would suffice. " 

I am not in favor of using the fusible plates unless 
they are very small, because if large it would be very 
dangerous to be near them when giving way. The fusible 
plugs are greatly to be preferred, both because they 
can do no harm if properly arranged, and they cost 
but a trifle compared w^ith that of the patent alarm de- 
tectors. Many of our first class engineers say that 
these detectors are not reliable after remaining in the 
boiler for some time, as the plug of fusible metal be- 
comes coated with lime, and hardened by constant heat- 
ing, and its fusibility is destroyed. For this reason 
the fusible rivet would be far superior, for when over- 
heated it will be sure to melt and tell the tale. If thel 
water should be very strongly impregnated w^ith lime, 
it would be w^ell when cleaning out the boilers to soci 
that the lead rivet heads are clear of having scale, lest 



Boilehs. 85 

after tho lead had melted the scale might form so thick 
as to prevent the steam from blowing through, but I 
do not think this is at all probable; but by examining it 
occasionally you have a sure thing, and if soft water is 
used there ia^ no necessity for examination. Keep }' our 
boilers clean, and after cleaning them out be sure to 
leave no blankets, brooraSj or any thing else behind, as 
boilers in this way have often been bawed and burnt* 
There is very little difference between the simple fusible 
rivet and the patented S! fety alarm whistles. They 
both alike melt and io:ive the alarm when the water is 
too low. The patent one. after having given the alarm 
can be stopped immediately by shutting off the steam ; 
with the other you must got the steam down {-o as to 
allow you to put in another plug. Many prefer the lat- 
ter^ rather than pay the high price for the former. 



EXPLOSION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

An arrangement which has been brought out for 
preventing explosions in steam boilers is thus described i 
The apparatus consists of an elbow-pipe, connecting the 
furnace with the side flue; it is fixed just below the 
water level in the boiler, but may be fixed at any eleva- 
tion, or in any position requisite, and can be applied to 
any kind of boiler, as an opening into a side or centre 
flue is all that is required. The pipe is perforated with 
a number of holes, half an inch in diameter, so placed 
as to be subject to the immediate action of the fui'naco 
fire ; in these holes are metal plugs, more or less fusible, 
according to the working pressure of the boiler. Tho 
8 



86 The PraoI^ical Engxnl^ek. 

moment that the boiler, from neglect or otherwise, i^ 
heated below the level, and leaves this pipe bare, the heat 
from the furnace acts upon the plugs, which melt, and the 
steam oozing through the holes, immediately relieves 
the pressure in the boiler and extinguishes the fire^ 
making explosion impossible* 



EXPLOSION OF A BOILER AND ITS CAUSE. 

"A steam boiler exploded at the factory of I. M. 
Singer & Co., Delancey street, New York, by which 
three men who were employed on the premises lost their 
lives. A coroner's inquest has been held on the bodies 
of the victims, and a decision rendered to the effect 
that the deceased came to their deaths by injuries re* 
ceived by the explosion, and that ^ the jury believe that 
the engineer and the fireman of the factory are censura- 
ble for the explosion ; the fireman for starting the fires 
after he had been informed of the state of the boiler, 
and the engineer for not making a thorough examination 
of the boiler and its connections after being notified of 
the trouble/ 

"To understand the nature of this decision and the 
charge against the engineer^ William Ford, and the fire- 
man, Michael Reagan, it is necessary to give the sub* 
stance of some of the evidence before the jury: The 
private watchman of the establishment stated that he 
had examined the four boilers in the factory on the 
evening before, and found that no water would flow out 
of some of the gauge cocks, although there was a high 
pressure of steam on. He then went for a boiler maket 



Boilers. 87 

named M' Given, with whom he was acquainted, and 
both of them tried to raise one safety valve with their 
hands and were unable to do so. It pressed against the 
rafters so firmly that they could only slightly raise it 
with a piece of timber placed under the ball. He in- 
formed the fireman of this next morning, and also the 
engineer. The fires were started before sufficient water 
had been let into the boilers, and the pumps did not 
seem to operate well. 

''William M. Storm, a mechanical engineer for the 
Police Department, stated that three of the four boilers 
in the establishment were uninjured, and upon examin- 
ing their safety valves he could lift three easily, but the 
safety valve of the one which exploded was fast ; the 
lower gauge cock was also immovable. The four boilers 
were in a gang — all alike and set side by side. Their 
connections were such that they could work all together 
or in pairs. They have return flues 14 inches in diam- 
eter, and both flues of the one that exploded w^ere col- 
lapsed from end to end and torn away at their junction 
with the ends of tho boiler. Joseph E. Coffee, engineer 
and boiler inspector for the Metropolitan district, stated 
that he had examined the exploded boiler, and that the 
safety valve had been shut at the time of the explosion., 
All the four boilers had their feed water pipes open, 
but two of them had their steam pipes, which led to the 
engine, closed, and only one of these exploded — the 
one which had its safety valve fast. There had been 
fire under all the four boilers. The steam which was 
generated in the two boilers that were disconnected with 
the engine, forced the water out of them, as the pres- 
sure increased, into the other two boilers, thus nearly 



88 The Practical Engineer. 

emptying the two former boilers. ^ The flues of these 
thon became overheated, and one gave way with an or- 
dinary pressm^e of steam.' This was the cause of the 
explosion, in the opinion of Mr. Coffee, and it is very 
evident that it is a clear explanation of it. Mr. Coffee 
also stated that had the boiler been full of water and 
tha safety valve in proper order the explosion would no' 
have taken place. It was the duty of the engineer to 
soe that the connections were in proper order. Mr. B. 
G. Lord, sergeant of the sanitary police, stated that the 
engineer who had charge of these boilers, had no certif- 
icate from the Police Department. 

'' Nine-tenths of all the explosions which take place 
are tho results of similar causes." — Scientific American, 

I would add, that it is a bad plan to put fire under 
the boilers before the Avater rises to the lower gauge, as 
there is danger of overheating the boiler iron, and 
burning it below the low water gauge, on account of the 
lack of the regular supply of Avater; and it is running 
a considerable risk, Avhere you are using a force pump, 
that is known not to be reliable, and which sometimes 
works and at other times refuses. There are many 
pumps of this description now in use. 

It is customary to put a lead rivet in the centre of 
tlie crown sheet of locomotive boilers, for the purpose 
of giving the alarm in case the water from any cause 
should be suffered to get too low ; this is done by the heat 
melting the rivet, and letting the steam escape, which 
gives t'le alarm^ by blowing through the rivet hole and 
Avhistling. 



Boilers. bS 



PANTING OF BOILER HEADS AND HULLS. 

There is no doubt that one of the causes of boiler 
heads blowing out is produced by the panting of the 
boiler head. I recollect a first rate engineer telling me 
that when he was on the river, he applied a straight 
edge to the back boiler heads, and every time the en- 
gine would take steam the boiler heads would spring in, 
and then out, from |^ to :^ inch. This is calculated, in 
the course of time, to weaken the flange on the boiler 
heads, causing it to crack and give way. Wherever 
this is the case, you may depend on it that the heads 
are not as stiff nor as well braced as they should be; 
they should be made so strong as not to spring, nor 
pant in the least. 

John Warden told me that he had seen large low 
pressure boilers, on the lake, panting on the sides. 
Every time the steam was let into the cylinder the sides 
of the boiler w^ould shrink in, and when the valve was 
shut they would swell out constantly whilst the engine 
was running — just the same as a man's chest heaving 
out and in every time he breathes, inhaling and exhaling 
the atmosphere. 



SUGGESTIONS TO CAPTAINS OF STEAMERS. 

It is the duty of every captain having charge of 
a steamboat, before putting out of port, and also when 
landing, to give the engineers special orders to have 
the water in the upper gauge cocks, or as much 

8* 



90 The Practical Engineer. 

higher as it can be carried, so as not to hinder the run- 
ning of tlie engine by drawing ^vater into the cylinder. 
The object of this is to guard against the many acci- 
dents that are continually occurring by boats being 
listed, when putting out and landing, and also occasion- 
ally when rounding to in putting out, and in taking in 
passengers. V hen such accidents occur you often hear 
the cause assigned, that the boat was listed very much 
to one side, which may be occasioned in different ways. 
One very common way is, that when putting out or land- 
ing, the passengers generally rush to the shore side ; and 
also the rush from the shore to get on board is on the same 
side, so that instead of causing surprise or furnishing 
any apology for any accident to the boiler or flues, it 
is just what might in such a case be expected ; and 
hence the necessity of precautionary measures to prevent 
this, by always having in the boilers a surplus of water, 
a:id being careful, when going out and coming into port, 
not to have the steam at its highest, nor the fires at 
their hottest, until you are fairly under full headway. 
There are other causes for boats listing, as when caught 
in a heavy storm. This might be called unavoidable ; but 
as you generally have indications of storms before they 
come, it would be well to be prepared for them in the 
same way. Boats when turning in strong water are 
listed with the current. 

Great care should also be taken, in running in low 
stages of water, to keep the passengers as much as pos- 
sible from the steam pipes and boilers, as there is great* 
dano;er in case the boat should rub hard or strike a rock. 
I saw four deck passengers who were killed in this way 
on board the steamer Nimrod. As she came over the bar 



Boilers. 91 

in low water, she struck, and the jar sprung a leak in 
the copper steam pipe leading from the boiler into the 
cylinder; it was a short pipe, about a quarter circle. 
When she landed at Cincinnati, I heard of it and went 
aboard. There were a man and his wife lying side by 
side, and two other passengers, who were scalded to 
death in this way on the upper deck above the boilers. 
To avoid accidents of this kind, some have a long crook 
sideways in the steam pipe leading from the boilers to 
the cylinders, say 2 feet or more offset, with 18 inches 
between; this will allow the pipe to spring a great deal 
before giving way, and if there had been on the Nim- 
rod such a pipe as this, I do not think anything would 
have occurred. 

By way of caution to passengers w^ho know little 
or nothing of the dangers they are exposed to when 
traveling on board of steamers on low water, I would 
advise them to choose as the safest part of the boat, 
the berths farthest from the steam pipes and boilers, 
which would be at the stern in side wheel boats; and 
in daylight, when passing over shoal places, keep as far 
out of the reach of the boilers and pipes as possible. 
I went on board the new steamer Vermilion at Louis- 
ville, when putting out to go over the Falls of the Ohio ; 
the boat was drawing 3 or 4 inches more water than 
there was on the falls. The canal, I think, was not in 
operation at this time, as it was about thirty years ago. 
She was bound to go over if possible, as she was intended 
for the lower trade. Before leaving Louisville they pre- 
pared for the worst, by having the boilers as full of 
water as they would bear, so as not to hinder the engine 
from working ; and when we were getting into the strong 



92 The Practical Engineer. 

water and nearing the falls, we took hold of the railing, 
as in case of getting a little to one side or other of the 
channel she would be thrown over to one side, and might 
possibly throw those who were not on their watch into 
the river, but we kept straight in the channel, and went 
over flying. 

Pilots should also, as a general thing, keep in the 
channel as much as possible, because when out of the 
channel they cannot tell what they may come in contact 
with. I was once coming up on a steamer on the Ohio, 
when she ran foul of a snag which was invisible, as it 
was under water. A number of others and myself 
were seated around the stove, and we were nearly pitch- 
ed into the fire. The boat was so badly snagged that 
a;ll hands were called to work, some to pumping, some 
to bailing with tubs and buckets, and others to stopping 
the leak in the bow, which was done by building a tem- 
porary bulkhead and stuffing blankets into the hole. 
It was with difficulty we kept her from going down. 
Another caution to pilots : they cannot be too careful to 
land boats easy ; if they come in hard they jar the boat, 
and are liable to break the pipes or spring leaks. 

To give an idea of the danger of a boat when listed, 
with the flues bare on one side, I refer to a draft, on 
page 92. The boat is supposed to be in the act of round- 
ing to in strong water, and is listed, and whilst in this 
condition has collapsed one of her flues, in consequence 
of becoming red hot for want of water. You see the flue 
A in the plate rent on the right side ; the upper deck is 
represented as having been blown oS*, and the movables 
scattered in various directions, attended with loss of 
life, &c. 



^ 'c:: 




f\ \P^. 






Y 



! '^"^ 






Boilers. 93 



TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF STEAM IN THE 

BOILER. 

In the first place, it will be necessary to show how 
the notches in the safety valve lever should be laid off. 
Care should be taken, to have the spaces between the 
notches cut equal to the space between the fulcrum and 
valve stem, so that by counting the notches, you may 
tell exactly how much weight is carried. And let it 
be ahvays remembered, that the first notch from the 
valve stem counts two, because the distance between it 
and the fulcrum is tAvice the distance between the 
notches. To make this plainer, suppose twelve weights 
were put on the top of the valve, they would be just 
equil to one weight in the twelfth notch of the lever. 

The next thing will be to ascertain the net amount 
of weight there is on the safety valve seat from the 
weight of the lever, valve stem, valve, &c. This is done 
by a pair of steel-yards or spring scales, hooked to a 
string fastened to the lever at the centre of the safety 
valve stem. 

(See draft in which the safety valve calculations are 
made.) 

The las.t thing, is to get from the position of the pea 
on the lever, the amount of pressure on the safety 
valve. JMultiply the weight of the pea by the number 
of notches in the lever, always bearing in mind to count 
the first notch two. Then divide this amount by the 
number of square inches in the safety valve seat, which 
is found by multiplying the square of the diameter by 
.7854, (see example below,) and the result will be the 



94 The Practical Engineer. 

amount of pressure of steam you are carrying in the 

boiler, with the weight of the pea, and to this you add 

the additional weight caused by the lever, valve stem, 

valve, &c., and those two products, added together, will 

be the exact weight of steam carried in the boiler. 

Example. — The opening in the safety valve seat is 

3 inches in diameter, the pea is 50 pounds, and there 

are 8 notches in the lever, counting the first notch 2; 

what is the weight of steam per square inch? 

3 
3 

9 
.7854 a decimal. 



7.0686 Product of the multiplication of 7 
square inches in the safety valve seat. 
Multiply a 50 pound pea by 8 notches and divide by 
7 the number of square inches in the safety valve seat, 
and the product will be the weight of steam in the boil- 
ers produced by the weight of the pea on the end of the 
lever ; to this you add ttie additional weight caused by 
the lever, valve, valve stem, &c. 

50 lbs. weight of pea. 
8 notches on the lever. 

Divide by 7 square 1 7)400 lbs. 

inches in valve seat, J 

57J lbs. per square inch. 
3 

60J lbs. of steam per square 
inch. 
Suppose the lever and rigging to weigh at the centre 



Sn/cft/ 7ravFr^Strely'tr/rfs 




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Thrx t/Me gives IJie weiff/rl ofStfain earned vfil7i a pea, art t7ee leaver of 10O16.S. exclitsive of the a tlilili.on/tZ weit/lit 
ofihcSaflevYnJyeJea-ver.VaJve &Yu7've stciif .thy'.r a/JfltfioiieiJ tvcjf/Tif ra,nl>e qnt>6y av^r of SleelyarJ.su.9h erel <nJ dowu . 



II 



Suppose the lever a 






Boilers. 95 

of the valve stem 21 pounds, which, divided by the 
number of square inches in valve seat, which is 
7)21 lbs. 

3 lbs* to the square inch to be 
added for the lever^ valve and valve stem* 

ANOTHER RULE. 

"The apertures for safety valves require no nice cal- 
culations. It IS only necessary to have the aperture 
sufficient to let the steam off from the boiler as fast as 
it is generated, when the engine is not at work. 

The safety valve is loaded sometimes by putting a 
heavy weight upon it, and sometimes by means of a 
lever with a weight to move along to suit the required 
pressure. 

When the whole weight is put on the valve, to find 
the pressure to each square inch :— 

Multiply the square of the diameter of the valve by 
7854, and this product will give the area, or number of 
square Inches in the valve. 

And if the whole weight upon the valve. In pounds, 
be divided by the number of square inches in the valves, 
the quotient will give the number of pounds pressure to 
each square inch in the valve. 

Ex. — If a weight of 40 lbs. be placed upon a valve, 
the diameter of which is 3 inches, what will be the 
pressure to each square inch? 

3^ X *7854 = 7 square inches; then, 40-4-7 = 5f 
lbs. per square inch.'' — Norris Hand Booh. 



96 The Practical Engineer. 



JOHN WALLACE'S VERTICAL STEAM BOILER. 

This boiler having for a lono; time en2;ag:ed the atten- 
tion of the inventor, is now before the public. It 
has been thoroughly tested, and we think proved to be 
superior to all other upright boilers now in use, being 
less liable to explosion. It is so constructed that with 
a full head of steam, and while the engine is in motion, 
the sediment can be dislodged, and then discharged 
throuo'h the mud valve, thus relievini^ it from the danger 
of choking up w^th mud and sediment, to Avhich small 
fluedand tubular boilers are so liable. It is cylindrical^ 
and easily transported. It requires no fire front, no 
boiler stands, and no furnace of brick or mason work, 
(the furnace being entirely inside of the boiler,) and 
not over one-third the grate bars requisite for ordinary 
boilers. The furnace in this boiler being entirely sur- 
rounded with water, there is but little danger from fire, 
and insurance companies have insured factories where 
these boilers have been used, for 25 to 40 per cent, less 
than they would do when the common boilers were used. 
The vertical boiler occupies about one-tenth only of the 
ground space required for a horizontal boiler, and when 
we consider this fact^ the economy of space becomes a 
matter of great importance, and particularly so in larg< 
towns and cities* 

All orders promptly attended to. 

W. W. WALLACE, 
319 Liberty sti^eet^ Pittsburgh 






/^^ <^>Tr/^ r/preservti 




R 



fmmwmm\ 

Ash Bm. \ 



Blow off. 





ur ound Vi e w of Tjpri^lLt E oiler 
z^m 6y Jo^y>yl4'^Jc^e__ frith fonr Chu? in et/s. 



Pcti e ; !5 



TJpri^lit^E oilers witliin Boilexs 
n E 



TTieGreenTtpre 
scats -water, and 
tjfie Kedfire. 




a?td.tAe red fifr^ 



o/icp 

Drocymv dy Jo?in WaZ/<z.ce 



BoiLEHS. 97 



VARIOUS KINDS OF FUEL. 

STONE COAL AND SLACK, 

More work can bo done with less boiler^ with a siijje^ 
rior article of coal ; and the difference between the 
amount of labor performed by the different kinds of fuel 
will be equal to the difference in the quality* I have 
had experience in this matter, and have been able with 
good lump coal to keep steam up and blowing off with 
ease, whilst with the same boiler and engine, in using 
slack or inferior coal, every thing would drag and we 
could not get along to advantan;e. Where you intend to 
use slack, or an inferior article of coal, make your cal- 
culations accordingly, getting an extra amount of 
boiler to make up for the defect in the quality of the 
fuel, or otherwise you will come short of realizing a 
sufficiency of steam. If slack is us^d, the spaces be- 
tween the bars should be from f to J inch wide* 

DRY AND GREEN AVOOD. 

Wood can be used to better advantage on flued boilers 
than any other kind of fueh It is also much cleaner^ 
and easier on the boilers, being less liable to injure them 
by excessive heat. It keeps up a more constant flame 
than any other kind of fuel, with the exception of pine 
knots. It blazes until almost entirely consumed, and 
the flues in the boiler remain clean for a much n;reater 
length of time, and consequently require less sweeping 
out, than when usino; bituminous coal 

Green wood makes a slow but very hot fire; and 
where it is intended to be used, as It generally is about 
saw-mills, you should calculate on having from 75 to 



98 The Practical Engineer. 

100 per cent, more boiler than if dry wood were to be 
used. Where green wood is used about saw-mills it is 
sometimes customary to have a double tier of grate barSj 
6 and 8 feet long, for burning slabs, &c. 

\y00D AND COAL MIXED. 

Wood and coal mixed is said to make the hottest fire 
for raising steam that can be used. This is owing to 
the wood being scattered through the coal, keeping it 
more open and porous, and allowing the air to circulate 
more freely, thereby causing it to burn much better and 
brighter than either would separately. 

SAW DUST AND SLACK* 

It is customary, especially about city saw-millis, where 
fuel is high, to use up the sawdust. In order to do this 
to advantage, it is necessary to mix in a small quantity 
of slack, which makes it burn better. Where this kind 
of fuel is used, it is now becoming common to have the 
furnaces 20 or 24 inches deep between the bottom of 
the boilers and the top of the grate bars. ' It is also 
coming into use to have two tier of 3 feet grate bars, 
making the fire-bed 6 feet long. The spaces between 
the bars require to be so close as to prevent the sawdust 
from falling through. It is economy to use this kind of 
fuel, as it costs little or nothing ; but wherever it is 
used it is necessary to have from 75 to 100 per cent. 
more boiler than would be requisite with the best of fueL 

TAN BAR]^. 

It is a common thing for the tanners about Pittsburgh, 
Cincinnati and elsewhere, to use the tan bark in the 
boiler furnace. These furnaces are of a peculiar con- 



Boilers. V)9 

struction. The boiler is down in a pit. It is customary 
to have a division in the furnace even for one boiler ; the 
furnace is about 2 feet deep and 4 feet long ; it is made 
low so that the bark can be emptied into the vault from 
the wheel-barrow by lifting oif the cap. The object of 
the division in the furnace is to fill the divisions time 
about. As the bark is put in wet, it will not do to fill 
them both up at the same time, as it would smother the 
fires ; but the idea is, always to have one burning bright 
whilst you are filling up the other. In all such cases 
you must calculate on double the amount of boiler that 
would be necessary with good fuel. In using this waste 
bark for fuel, several good purposes are answered. It 
saves cost in purchasing fuel, it saves the expense of 
hauling it away, and gives more room for storage, and 
w^hen burnt the ashes are sold to the farmers for manure. 

ANTHRACITE COAL. 

Anthracite coal is generally used in the cities of 
Philadelphia, New York, &c. It is found in the east at 
a great depth, some of the mines are hundreds of feet 
deep. It is hard and flinty, clean, and makes no 
smoke. It takes a great Avhile to kindle, and when 
kindled will burn almost half a day before requiring to 
fill the furnace again. These fires do not require the 
shaking and stirring that bituminous coal does. "Where 
this kind of fuel is used they require about 50 per cent, 
more boiler than with bituminous coal. It requires to 
be kindled with wood, bituminous coal or charcoal. 

PINE KNOTS. 

Pine knots are 2:ot in the South. Thev are full of 
turpentine, and do very well to mix in with wood or 



100 The Pkactical Engixeek. 

coal. They make a very hot fire, but using them alto- 
gether is not so good ; the flues would soon fill up with 
soot, and if used alone they would make all blaze and 
little or no red fire. I used some of them on a steamer 
at Florence, Alabama, when I was engineering on the 
Tennessee river. 



HOW TO PUT ON COALS IN BOILER FURNACES. 

Great skill is required in firing under the boilers, in 
order to produce the greatest amount of steam with the 
least a^iount of fuel, and also to prevent w^aste and save 
labor. The best mode of putting on coals is to scat- 
ter them thinly over a clear red fire, and let it burn 
until it forms a regular crust, then open it up with the 
poker, to let the air circulate freely through it, and as 
soon as the fire becomes clear and red hot fill up in the 
same manner as above. Avoid all unnecessary shaking 
of the fires, as it wastes the fuel, and makes a great 
many more clinkers than Avould otherwise be made. In 
burning saw dust or tan bark, the less slack used the 
better. You require enough barely to cover the grate 
bars, to prevent the sawdust or tan bark from falling 
through, and more than this would choke the fires so as 
to exclude the air from passing through, and prevent 
the fires from burning. 



BOILER TUBES. 

"According to the experiments made by Prof. Fair 
bairn, the law of resistance for cylindrical tubes is this 



Boilers. 101 

a tube having the same strength of material, and being 
of the same diameter, will resist double the pressure of 
one having double the length ; or, the collapsing pres- 
sure, other things being the same, varies inversely as 
the length and inversely as the diameter. Experiments 
made with elliptical tubes showed that in every con- 
struction where tubes have to sustain a uniform external 
pressure, the cylindrical is the only form to be relied 
upon, and that any departure from the true circle is 
attended with danger. The experiments also tended to 
confirm the conclusions heretofore arrived at, namely, 
that the strengths of riveted joints of malleable iron 
plates are nearly as the numbers 100 for the plate, 70 
for double riveted joints, 50 for single-riveted joints.'' 

I endorse the above statement, that the cylindrical 
tube is the onlv form to be relied on, and that it is less 
dangerous than other kinds. I will give an example. 
Some years ago, a steamship was fitted out here by a 
New York company. The boilers were Sued, the flues 
having the shape of a triangle with three equal circular 
sides. The object in making them so, was to get more 
fire surface. (For particulars, see draft of an end view 
of boiler and flues, on page 93.) I understood that on 
her first trial trip, she collapsed one or more of her 
flues. They were taken out and cylindrical ones put in 
their place. 

I have seen in a patent boiler, a large elliptical flue, 
the object of which was to gain fire surface. The flue 
was supported inside here and there with water pipes, 
as you see in the draft of an end view of boiler, on page 
000. Neither of these kinds of flues are worth putting 

in, as their strength is greatly diminished on account of 

9* 



102 The Practical Engineer. 

their shape. You might, with the same propriety, intro- 
duce an elliptic boiler, for the sake of gaining fire sur- 
face. The one is equal to the other. Boilers and flues 
of this description would be dear to put in use, if you 
could get them for nothing; and, not only this, but it 
would cost more to make them than the cylindrical 
boiler and flues. 



EXPERIMENT TRIED ON A NEW BOILER. 

An experiment was tried here on a double-flued 40- 
inch boiler, 12 feet long, with two 16-inch flues. The 
iron was heavy, J-inch ; the best charcoal Juniata ; the 
heads f of an inch thick. It was made on purpose to 
try it with the test pump, to see what amount of pres- 
sure it would stand. It was tested by the United States 
Boiler Inspector. It began to leak at the seams on 
the side at 230 lbs. pressure, and gave way at 290 lbs., 
at the back head around the flange of the flue, which 
cracked and opened a space of 10 inchest The head 
sprung out If inches before the flue flange gave Avay. 
I suppose the yielding of the head was what caused the 
rupture. The boiler head had no braces in. There is 
no doubt in my mind but the boiler would have stood 
more pressure had the heads been well braced, as the 
rupture in the flue flange was evidently caused by the 
head springing out If inches. 



Boilers. 103 



DEPOSIT OF LIME ON BOILERS. 

To persons having the care of steam engines, the fol- 
lowing from the Laurencehurg Register may be valuable : 
^•Mr. Ira Hill has informed us, that he has accidentally 
made a valuable discovery, by which the deposition of 
lime upon steam boilers may be obviated. Two or three 
shovels of saw-dust are thrown into the boiler ; after 
which process, he states, he never had any difficulty from 
lime, although using water strongly impregnated with 
it. He has always found the inside of his boilers as 
smooth as if just oiled. Whether the lime attaches 
itself to the floating particles of saw-dust, instead of 
the boiler, or whether the tannic acid in the oak saw- 
dust forms a salt with the lime which Avill not attach 
itself to the iron, remains to be explained. The saw- 
dust was placed in the boiler for the purpose of stopping 
a leak. The expei-iment is cheap and easily tried." 



WEIGHT OF STEAMBOAT BOILERS, &c. 

The following tables of the weight of steamboat boil- 
ers, including fire bed, breeching, chimneys, guy rods, 
fire fronts, grate bars, bearers, liners, check, blow-off 
and safety-valve chambers, including all the wrought 
and cast iron required for the same, are given for 
the benefit of those w^ho are about to negotiate for the 
building of steamers, mills, factories, i&c, in order that 
they may ascertain the cost by knowing the weight, and 
be better prepared to make their calculations under- 



104 The Practical Engikeer. 

standiDgly. It is said, that the cost of boilers, when 
rigged out complete, is about one-half the whole cost of 
the boilers and engine. I believe, in many instances, 
this, is correct, and in others, the cost may be more and 
sometimes less. This depends altogether on circum- 
stances. I merely throw out the hint, so that when you 
have the price of the boilers and all belonging to the 
same complete, the cost of the engine will not vary much 
either way from that of the boilers and rigging. An- 
other advantacre to steamboat men is, thev can better 
ascertain the amount of water the boat will draw, by 
previously knowing the weight of the machinery ; and, 
by having the weight of the boilers and engine, they 
will know better where to place them on the boat, so as 
to make an equal draft as much as possible fore and aft. 



\ 



Boilers. 



105 



CD 

K 

Pi 

CD 



O 

pq 







02 

fH - 

CD o 

CO r-^ 

!=! :=! 

l1i 

Ret? I 

CD CS \ 

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1 — I 

CD o 

O r/3 
P ^ 

2 Oh 

O 1 — I 

I— t o 

brhj 

-^ c3 

P Pi 

o ^ 

C/2 

O 

'o 



i «rr 2 3 

1 1:2 2 £ '^ 


OOOi-Hr-^COCiC?tOO(MOO'^^^ 

. -fH-MOooooor^oooo-^iO-vHc:) 

2 Cvl '^D 01 OC^<^ cq_ lC^C:^0_ CO 0^0^ 

co~ 0^ Jt^ >o^ of i--^ oc*^ ^^ CD c^f J 0^ CO r-*^ c<i 


Weight of 

Steam 
Dr'm,Mud 

and lioiler 

Stand 

Pipe, all 

complete. 


1 M N M 


2,306 
3,600 




lbs. 
1,720 




Wei.i4ht 
of Double 

k^team 
Drum and 

Hi.iler 

Stand 
Pipe, all 
complete. 


OOt-H -000)000 '1^ ^CDiOC:)^ 

tfi CO : cq^Qvi co^o : r-^^ \ cm^^t-i^ '^^ 

*r— iT—ir— 1 *C<1 'r— irHr- 1t-h 


■Weight of 

Boilers, Man 

and liaud Hole 

Platen, 

Arches, Bolts, 

and 
all, complete. 


ODOOOOOOOOOOOOC^IOO 

. c:)(MiOCDcoococ::'C:l'^c:^'ri^l^OO 

J ^^ ' ^^ '^^ "^.^ '"i. ^^ '^^ '^^ *R. ^^ "^^ ^^ ^.^ ^^ ^ 

c<r 0^ CO co^ J>^ co^ t^ -TfT T^*^ 0^ 0^ q6 0^ 0^ 0^ 

T-HT-HrH!-HT-in(>lCO rH 


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COC<lCOCOTtHC<J(MC<|(M| 



106 



The Practical Engineer. 



Weight of Boilers, Single and Double Steam Dram, Mud Ee- 
ceiver, Boiler Hand Pipe, Man and Hand Hole Plates, Bolts 
and G-askets ; including lire Fronts, Grate Bars, Check, Blow- 
off and Safety Valve Ohambers, and all other Castings be- 
longing to the same, 







' 


i 


Wf^iVht of; 




Wt. of Fire Fr'ts. 


\y eight of Steam Drum, 


■u 






1 


Boilers, ; 


Wt. of Fire 


Grate Bars, 


Murl l:eceiver, 


O 


t 






Man, 1 


hfd, 


ami Bearers, j 


Boiler Stand Pipe, 


1 

5 , 


o 






and Hand 


Breeching, 


f liiolt, Blow-om : 


Fire B^d, 


1 






Hole i 


Chimney, 


and Safety Valye, 


Chimneys, Fire Front, 








Plates, 1 


and hll 


Chambers, 


Grate Biirs, Checli, 


o O 


c 


_. 




Arches, ' 


wroii};ht ircnl 


includii.g all | 


Blow-oif Hod 


® s 


S-i 


^ 




Bolts and 


work lor the 1 


cast.ngs iieloug- 


Safety \alve Chambers, 


^ 


^ 


-i 




Gaskets, \ 


same, all put | 


ins to the ' 


including all (-actings 


S 


B 

{3 


9. 


all 


up ou boat. 


boilers, fire bed 


and wrought iron work 


^ 


ia 


5 


i 


complete. 

i 




and chimney. 


belonging to the smie. 




lbs. , 


fts. 


fts. 


lbs. 


1 


1 


30 


12 


8,040 


480 


1.100 


4.620 


9 


2 


30 


20 


6,028 


2,400 


2,890 


11,318 


3 


2 


32 


16 


7.001 


2,989 


3,100 


13.090 


4 


2 


36 


20 


15,280 


10.399 


3,850 


29,529 


5 


2:36 


18 


18,803 


7;252 


5,800 


31.855 


6 


3i38 


22 


17,299 


8,157 


5.000 


30;456 


7 


3!38i22 


18,803 


8,509 


5,900 


, 33,212 


8 


2;3826 


14.675 


12,269 


4,250 


31,194 


9 


8i40|24 


26,306 


8,900 


6,450 


41.656 


10 


3;4026 


22,582 


' 9,159 


6,600 


38.841 


11 


3140130 


38,900 


21,384 


7,500 


67,784 


12 


2'38 


|18 


10,040 


10,150 


5,250 


25,448 


13 


2i36 


12 


6,561 


8.500 


5,100 


20.251 


14 


ii 


136 


|16 


7,042 


9;900 


5,200 


22,142 


15 


2 


':4C 


22 


12,098 


i 8.000 


4,300 


22,998 



Boilers. 



lOT 



Weiglit of Plued Boilers, Diameter, Length and Thickness, 
including Man Plates, Arches and Gaskets. 



Ft. 

8 
10 
12 
10 
12 
10 
12 
16 
18 
20 
12 
14 
16 
18 
18 
20 
24 
18 
20 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 



In. 



_3 
1 i 

3 
T6 

3 
76 

3 
16 
_3_ 
1 6 

3 
1 6 

3 
16 

3 
T6 

3 
16 

3 

T6 

_3_ 

1 6 

1 

4 

3 

i 
_3_ 
1 6 
_A. 
1 6 
3 

^? 



i 
3 

TE 

3 

16 

1 

4 

i 



In 







OQ 




• 


S 






Cs. 






^ 






O 






bi 






aj 


>» 




J3 


^ 


'i 


& 


(D 


(U 


5 


l-H 




a 


Iq. 


In. 






i 


1 




1 i 


2 




' 1 


1 




1 


1 




3 
8 


1 




1 


2 




1 


o 




8 






1 


1 




-1 


2 




7 
T6 


2 






2 




7 
16 


2 




y\ 


2 




r'. 


1 




7 
16 


1 




7 
T6 


2 




i 


2 




-1 


2 


... 


7 
I 6 


2 




7 
16 


2 






1 




7 
T6 


1 




7 
T6 


2 




... 






7 


•> 




1 6 





f» 



In. 

8 
7 
11 
10 
10 
10 
10 
16 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
16 
16 
10 
11 
12 
11 
13 
14 
17 
12 
13 
13 



In. 



3 
T6 

3 
TS 
_3_ 
I 6 

3 
IS 

l\ 

3 
16 
_3 
1 6 

3 
16 

3 
1 6 

3 



1 

4 

3 
T6 
_3_ 
1 6 

3 

re 

i 

I 

4 



1_ 

4 
_3_ 
J 6 

1 

4 

X 
4 



to 



In. 



]n. 






lbs. 

486 
1221 
1186 
1282 
1384 
1517 
1850 
2055 
;>.600 
2764 
1900 
2050 
3225 
2275 
8640 
2820 
8773 
3038 
3421 
3038 
3505 
2585' 
4013 
4692 
4400 



108 



The Practical ENaiKEKK, 



Weight of Fined Boilers, Lianieter, Length and Thioknegs, 
iiicludin2: Man Plates, Arches, Bolts and Gaskets. 



in 

^ i 


1 


i 












j 1 


1 


1 




'5 1 


1 


i 








<9 


2 


1 












£- X 


n ! 




i 


' 






~ 


JZ 
















«« 










'^ 


Ut 


1 












'z 3:Ji 


c 




si 






^ 


° i 


t» 












K- ^ 


''- i 




K 








*» 


m 














« 1 












St 


Zl 








1 












i : ? 


r3 


4 


s 




^ 


>> 

> 

eg 


rri 


^1 


^ 


I'-l^ 




— 


•- ;c •:; 


3 1 




s 




^ 


V 


o 


« 


e 


■.' n "^ 


^ 


^ 




5 i 


Z 


a 


s i 


;i^. 


a 


2; 


1 


5C 


!= 


111. 


Fi. 


In. 


lu. 


lu. 


In. , 




In. tn. 


1 


In. 


lbs. 


36 


24 


3 
75 


1 


... 


.. 


1 


16 1 


il 


• 4 « 


. • • 


. . . 


. •4 


... 


3640 


33 


2l) 


i ... 


... 


... 


2 


13 


1 

4 


... : ... 


• «4 


. . . 




427.3 


38 
38 


14 
14 


1:;:: 


..* 


. • » 


2 
2' 


13 
14 


Aj 





. 4 • 


... 


• 4 4 


3070 
3120 


38: 16 


i ...!... 


... 


2 


13 


i 




. • 4 


.aa 


.a a 


3.U:) 


, 3S 16 


i:...i... 


. • • 


2 


14 


i 


4 4. i 


... 




.44 


. • . 


374) 


38 18 

38 18 


1 


! 
. • t 

■ • • 


... 


... 

. 4 * 


1 


13 ; 

14 1 


1 


• •' 


... 


... 


■ a 4 




849 .; 
4420 


38: 20 


i ... 


• a 4 


... 


2 


13 


i 


... 


. . 4 


... 




... 


4765 


38: 2t) 


i 


« • • 


... 


. . 4 


2 


14 j i 


. . . 


... 


. a 4 


• a a 


... 


4:-)35 


38, 22 


i 


... 


... 


• • • 


2 


14 i 


... 


... 


.«• 


.44 




5257 


38 


24 


J 


. < * 


. . • 


. • 4 


2 


14i 


i 


. . . 


. . 4 


• a. 


. • • 




5820 


38 


26 


J 


. • . 


... 


. . 4 


2 


14 


i 




... 


..'. 






62 :0 


40 


16 


A 


• . * 


... 


7 
T6 


2 


12 


A 


1 


... 


4 4. 


... 


... 


2880 

1 _ . 


40i 16 j% 


. . • 


... 


A 


2 


14 


A 


1 ... 
1 * * * 


. 4 


..4 


.a. 


...801:^ 


40 


18 A 


• . . 


... 




2 


lo 


i 


1 


... 


... 


... 


.a. 4260 


4J 


, 20 A 


... 


. • • 


... 


2 


14 


A 


i... 


..4 


.4. 


... 


...14380 


40 20; i 


., 


... 


. • 4 


2 


15 


^ 


. 4 . 


. . . 






a.. 1471^ 


40 2(1 


' 3 
Tfi 


... 


... 


... 


2 


1.5 


i 


, , 


.44 


... 


.44 


...14650 


40 


22 




... 


... 


. • « 


2 


15 


i 


! . . . 


I 
... j... 


. . . 


..J5643 


40 


21 


, i 


i ••• 


... 


. . • 


2 


15 


J 


1 . .. 




.. 4 


... 


... 6020 


40 


26 


i 


1 .,, 


... 


1 ... 


2 


115 


i 


1 . . • 




.. - 


... 


...I'SolO 


40 


28 


• i 


I 

1 ... 


• • . 


... 


2 


[15 


i 


' . . . 


1 . .. 


.4 4 


. a . 


4.. 17210 


42 


16 


» ... 


J 


. • « 


• ■* 


2 


16 


• •« i 


i 


1 

1 .. . 


. . . 


... 


...!421 ' 


4-J 

42 


IS 
IS 




1 






•J 


15 






i 




j 


iL64 


1 ,,, 




... 


2 


ir, 


.... 


... 


i ... 


"* 1 


'')1{J0 



Boilers, 



109 



Weight of Flued Boilers, Diameter, Length and Thick -^ 
ness, including Man and Hand Hole Plates, Arches, 
Bolts and Gaskets. 



1 
o 

B 

s 


c 
>J 

Ft. 
20 

20 
20 
22 
22 
24 
24 
26 
26 
28 
18 
18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
26 
24 


a 
H 

In. 
T% 

"i 
i 

1 

4 

i 


t 

In. 


>> 

>■ 

In. 


(M* 


CO 

6 


6 

:2j 


o 

B 
:z 

2 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1 
o 

0) 

i 

iS 

In. 

14 
15 
14 
15 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 
17 J 


03 

P 


fcD 


1 


>> 

1 

d 
!i5 


CO 

d 


CO 
!>. 

in 
l-H 

CO 

d 


'o 

n 

1 


in. 

4"^ 


In. 

"i 
i 

-1 
i 
i 

"i 

i 
i 
i 
i 
i 
i 

1 

4 


In. 


In. 








ft»s. 

4330 
4718 
.5050 


4^^ 


i 










i 




.... 






4^ 










. • • 








40 




.. 


















5fi4.S 


4^ 






















5960 


4^^ 






















6330 


4?, 






















6100 
6675 

6840 
7830 
4500 


4? 












"i 




6 




... 


42 
4^^ 


'"i 

i 
i 

i 

i 

i 

1 

4 

"i 


i 


... 


... 


rv 




44 




*• • 


















44 






















5385 
5690 


44 






















44 






















5590 


44 






















6775 


44 






















7340 


44 






















8050 


44 
44 




i 


2 








i 


2 




... 


8825 

7755 


44 


1 










i 




... 


3 


... 


7050 















10 



110 



The Practical Engineer. 



Weight of Ohimiieya and Breeching/ 



i 

s 

•s 

1 


i- 

a 

a 

s 

"S 

s 

1 


d 

a 

1 
•s 

1 
i 


a 

s 


a 

la 
o 

i 
1 


i 
6 
•s 
s 

1 

In. 


a 

.1 

o 

1 

Ft. 


6 
1 

i 

a 

.2 
H 

In. 


1 

i 

O 
■♦J 

t 


to 

S 
•3 

t 


In. 


Ft. 


111. 


fte. 


K)8. 


B)s. 


&>3. 


15 


20 


• • • 


280 


120 


50 


60 


14 


3,877 


361 


15 


20 


16 


275 


120 


46 


60 


14 


3,020 




16 


20 


18 


254 


251 


38 


48 


14 


2,014 




16 


20 


• • « 


262 


251 


40 


42 


14 


1,944 




15 


20 


• • • 


247 


119 


36 


88 


14 


1,215 




18 


20 


14 


389 


270 


40 


46 


14 


1,866 




18 


20 


. * • 


304 


142 


38 


44 


14 


1,627 




20 


30 


18 


400 


160 


26 


32 


14 


^ 660 




24 


36 


16 


782 


180 


52 


52 


14 


3,000 




22 


40 


16 


820 


170 


38 


40 


14 


2,014 




30 


36 


18 


740 


190 


36 


38 


. • • 


1,379 


• • •• •• 


24 


40 


16 


944 


395 


36 


22 




660 




30 


30 


15 


863 


250 


40 


40 


• • • 


1,759 




40 


46 


15 


887 





20 


30 


18 


400 


... . 


38 


48 


14 


4,250 




... 


... 


... 







Boilers. 



Ill 



Weight, Sizes and Thickness of Cylinder Boilers, with Wrought 
Iron Heads, Man Plates, Arches, Bolts and Gaskets, all com- 
plete. 











Weight of Cylinder Boil- 










ers, with Wrought Iron 


Diameter of 
Boilers. 


Length. 


Thickness. 


Light. 


Heads, Tvith Man Plates, 
Arches, Bolts, and Gas- 
kets, all complete. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


30 


20 




i 


2275 


30 


26 




i 


2960 


24 


12 






1035 


86 


28 


i 




3505 


40 


40 


i 




5530 


42 


16 


i 




2975 


24 


14 






1390 


80 


20 




i 


2275 


32 


40 


i 





4810 


28 


10 






1010 


80 


18 






1810 


82 


22 




••«••• 


2874 


86 


26 






8590 


86 


32 






3791 


40 


16 






2643 



Pressure allowable on Boilers of Various Dimensions. 
Adopted for the guidance of Local Inspectors. 

DIAMETER OF BOILERS. 

Pressure equiYaleiit to the standard pressure of a 42 inch Boiler, i in» iron« 



Wire 


Thick. 


3'4Inch. 


36 Inch. 


38 Inch. 


40 Inch. 


42 Inch. 


44 Inch. 


46 Inch. 


Gauge. 


of Iron 


Diam. 

ft)S. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Diam. 


Diam. 




fiis. 


lbs. 


ibs. 


!bs. 


lbs. 


fta. 


1 


Tff 


169.85 


160.41 


151.97 


144.37 


137.50 


131.25 


125.54 


2 


II 


158.52 


149 72 


141.84 


134.75 


128.33 


121.50 


117.17 


3 


13 

4 ft 


147.20 


139.03 


131.76 


125.12 


119.16 


113.75 


108.80 


4 


i 


135.88 


128.33 


121.57 


115.50 


110.00 


105.00 


100.43 


5 


1 1 

48 


124.55 


117.63 


111.44 


105.87 


100.83 


96.25 


92.06 


6 


II 


113.28 


106.94 


101.31 


96.25 


91.66 


87.50 


83.69 


7 


T5,. 


101.91 


96.24 


91.18 


86.62 


82.50 


78.75 


75.32 



JOINTS. 



VARIOUS MATERIALS FOR MAKING JOINTS. 

The following are the principal materials used foi* 
tnaking joints, viz: lead, copper, iron, brass, sheet lead 
and tin, gum, gasket paper, canvas, canvas and sheet 
lead, packing yarn, rope, pine board and leather. 



CEMENT JOINTS. 

There are various kinds of cement, used for making 
different kinds of joints, but I will speak of but two 
kinds that are used for cementing iron. Cement 
joints, such as are generally used about the steam en- 
gine, oil stills, hot blast pipes, &c., are made of cast iron 
borings or turnings, mixed with water enough to cover 
them. Then take a piece of sal ammoniac f of an inch 
round, pulverize it, take a quart of the iron borings, 
and mix and stir them up several times, and if possible 
let them stand at least half a day or more, to give the 
sal ammoniac time to dissolve, and also to thoroughly 
saturate the borings. If too much sal ammoniac is 
put in, it will weaken the joints by burning them, and 
if too little, it will not rust sufficiently to cause the 



Joints. 113 

borings to cement. A small amount of sulphur used to 
be put in to help the joint to dry faster. This is now 
generally dispensed with. 

In cold weather joints should be done in a warm 
place, and not exposed to the frost, nor suflered to 
freeze before getting perfectly dry. The joints would 
be all the better for standing three or four days or more, 
so as to get dry and hard before using them. They have 
been used in a few hours after making, but it is running 
somewhat of a risk, and this should be done only in 
cases of necessity. The new steamer Jubilee^ a four 
boiler boat, with steam up, freight and passengers on 
board, when about ready to put out, blew out one of the 
connection joints between the boilers. The river at this 
time was falling, and no water to spare in the channel. 
The captain was threatened damages to the amount of 
several thousand dollars. Fearing he should lose his 
present trip, and be detained until another rise, the 
boilers were cooled down, and the joint made in haste, 
and she put out next day. A good deal depends upon 
the inner gasket being made tight, which will take the 
strain oiF the cement joint and give it time to dry. But 
should the gasket leak on a green joint, it would be very 
likely to blow out. Care should be taken to have the 
borings and flanges free from grease, as grease pre- 
vents rusting, which is indispensable to a good joint. 



IrSAO JOINTS. 

Lead joints are often used about various parts of the 
st3am engine — for boiler stand pipes, and connections, 
10''^ 



114 The Practical Engineer. 

steam pipes, chests and caps^ valve seats, cylinder 
heads, man and hand hole plates, caps, &c. For boiler 
connections they answer very well, as long as the water 
is kept to the guage, but they are likely to melt out 
when the water is low. Cement would stand the heat 
better, but neither of them would answer after being 
heated too hot. The gummets on the heads of the con- 
nection bolts inside of the boilers would be sure to burn 
off, and this itself would slacken the bolts and cause the 
joints to leak, saying nothing about burning the cement 
or lead. It might or might not stand ; this depends on 
the amount of heating it would get. I mention this to 
show that all centre boiler connections ought to be for- 
ever abandoned. These connections, blocks or pipes, 
would get red hot much quicker than the boiler in case 
of low water, on account of their being away from the 
water. The boilers should always be connected below 
by large stand pipes, or on either end of the boiler 
heads, or on both, if you please. Boilers connected as 
the above, were connected about the centre, and some- 
times 2 or 3 inches below ; this kept the water 
course open longer than it would at the centre. One 
object of using these boiler connections in early 
days was partly for the purpose of holding the boilers 
together at the front end, on account of the rolling and 
surging of the boat. But if it is considered necessary to 
have any extras for binding the boilers together more 
than the fire fronts, steam and stand pipes, it would 
be better to bind them together at one or both boiler 
heads fore and aft, by bolting or riveting a flat bar of 
iron, to hold each pair of boilers firmly together. Lead 
joints may be used to nood advantage about almost 



Joints. llo 

every other part of the engine, as long as they will last 
without corroding and wasting, which will be much 
longer in places less hot, than Avhere it was more hot. 
When corrosion commences the joints and gaskets will 
require to be renewed. 



HOW TO RUN A HORIZONTAL LEAD JOINT. 

To do this requires judgment and practice. Failures 
arise from several causes. Sometimes the lead is too cold, 
and chills ; or this may take place if the lead be suffi- 
ciently hot, but poured in too slow. Sometimes the 
space between the bolts and the inner gasket is too small 
for the lead to pass, and the same may be the case on 
the outside, the bolt being too near the edge. Some- 
times the clay being sandy will not adhere and let the 
lead run out. Sometimes the joints are too close to 
receive the lead. The lead should be very hot, and 
poured in with two or more ladles, according to the size 
of the joint. When the space between the gasket and 
the bolts is found to be too small, cut a little out of the 
gasket back of the bolts ; if the difficulty is on the out- 
side, enlarge by setting out the paper. Fire clay is the 
best ; when this cannot be had, get the toughest clay you 
can. Care should be taken to have the joint well vent- 
ed, that the air may escape before the lead, otherwise it 
will blow and be a failure. It is necessary to have some 
person at hand with clay to apply in case of a leak. 



116 The Practical Engineer. 



HOW TO RUN PERPENDICULAR JOINTS. 

A great many joints of this kind are lost, on account 
of haying the lead too hot, and pouring it in too fast, 
and in one spot. It melts the inside lead gasket, and the 
lead runs into whatever you may be pouring into, and 
in order to get it out, you may have to undo and run 
over three or four more joints, as the case may be. Some 
persons, in order to avoid this, lap the gasket with packing 
yarn. In running these joints the lead ought to be so 
cool as not to set fire to a dry pine stick when put in to 
ascertain the right heat before pouring it. The gate 
for pouring should be as wide as possible on the top, and 
the lead as cold as it will run without making cold 
shuts. In this case there is nothing to chill the lead, 
when running into the joint, until it reaches the bottom. 
Kot so with the horizontal joint; the lead chills almost 
as soon as poured between the two flat surfaces, whilst 
running, and frequently chills before being filled. It 
will not be necessary to have any additional gate for 
vent on the upright joint, as the gate itself is sufficiently 
large for this purpose, if the lead is poured slowly, as it 
should be, so as not to choke the entire opening. In 
pouring in the lead, you should shift the ladle from side 
to side, so as to prevent its melting the gasket, by pour- 
ing it constantly in one place. 

Thus it will be seen that the lead for running a hori- 
zontal joint requires to be very hot, and poured very 
fast, whilst the upright joints require the lead to be just 
as cold as it will run, and poured as slowly as practi- 
cable. 



Joints. 117 

HOW TO PREPARE A JOINT FOR RUNNING- 

Take a strip of gasket paper about ^ of an inch thick, 
and if it is too stiff to bend around the flange, wet it in 
water until it becomes pliable, then tie it firmly around 
it, and cut a piece out of the paper to pour in the lead 
at one side, and leave another opening opposite for a 
vent; the paper all around should be plastered Avith fire 
clay to keep the lead from running out. Where gasket 
paper cannot be had leather may be and often is used, but 
this is more expensive, and does not last so long, as the 
heat burns it and soon makes it hard. Packing yarn is 
often used, and does very well; or a small rope about 
f or J inch tied tight over the joint, pulling it to one 
side where you pour in the lead. The two last require 
less time than the former. The only objection to these 
joints would be where you want a smooth finished out- 
side; they would be rough with the packing yarn or 
rope. They would ako be a little hollow, equal to the 
size of the rope pressing into the joint; but for durabil- 
ity and strength they cannot be beat. 



SHEET LEAD JOINTS. 

Sheet lead, such as was taken out of tea boxes, was 
used in early days for making joints about the steam 
engine, and they answered a good purpose. In those 
days I believe there, was no other kind to be had in the 

West. 



118 The Practical Engineer^ 



SHEET LEAD AND CANVAS JOINTS. 

In the early days of steamboating, when cast iron 
steam and supply pipes were used, the joints were gen- 
erally made with cement. They afterward substituted 
for it sheet lead the same as above, and canvas, which 
was better on account of its elasticity, yielding to the 
springing and settling of the boat. It was also cus- 
tomary to have the pipes to fit in each other with a 
stuffing box and packing yarn, to accommodate the ex- 
pansion and contraction of the pipes when heating and 
cooling. The joints were made by putting a layer of 
sheet lead and one of canvas alternately, until they 
were made the desired thickness. Coating them with 
white lead would be an improvement, if there is time for 
it to dry before using, otherwise it would run ofi* like 
grease and daub the machinery. The expansion of 
pipes is about 4^^ of an inch to the foot. 



ROLLED SHEET LEAD JOINTS. 

Rolled sheet lead can be had of various thicknesses, 
and is often used for making joints about steam engines, 
and for various other purposes. Where the two joint sur- 
faces are planed or turned, the lead may be very thin. 
It may or may not be coated with white lead, it will do 
very well without, but it would be better with it, if it has 
time to dry and harden. These joints last a long time 
until the lead corrodes and loses its life, and then it 
will be necessary to renew them with new material. 



Joints* 119 



RED LEAD JOINTS. 

Red lead joints are generally made in the following 
manner: the two joint surfaces are planed or turned 
true, and then coated with red lead, and screwed up 
tight; when dry it is as tight as a bottle, and lasts 
almost forever. Red lead is said to be superior to white 
lead for joints, as its being burnt removes the acid 
which is said to eat or corrode the iron, and when dry 
it makes a hard cement, and is not so liable to decay as 
white lead* 

WHITE LEAD JOINTS. 

There are certain joints about the steam engine that 
Would be better of being coated with w*hite lead, espe- 
cially if it had time to dry before using, such as paper 
around the heat, and other parts of the engine; for 
steam and supply pipes, joints, &c. It is also used 
about gaskets that have been lapped with packing 
yarn, such as man plates, cylinder heads, valve caps, 
and various other lap joints about escape pipes, hot and 
cold water pipes, pumps, &c. Unless the white lead has 
time to Sry before using it, it will do very little good, 
as the heat will cause a great portion of it to run off. 
White lead is frequently used between iron plates and 
surfaces for the purpose of making tight joints, and 
answers very well, but it is not so good or desirable as 
the red lead, and is liable to oxydize and decay sooner. 

In taking off man plates for the purpose of cleaning 
out the boilers, and also cylinder heads for the purpose 



120 The Practical E^'gixeer. 

of tightening up the packing, &c.j it is customary with 
many eniiineers to coat the face of those flaskets that 
have been well fitted and bedded with white lead, and 
then raise steam immediately. In such cases it would 
have been much better to put on none, for as soon as the 
engine is heated up, it runs ofi" like so much grease, and 
daubs every thing it comes in contact with. As a general 
things it is almost useless to put it on^ unless it has time 
to dry before using. 



SCREW PATCH JOINTS. 

There is a cement made of iron scaler, got from the 
anvil block — the proportions are as follows : to the 
white of one egg, add one table spoonful of flour, one 
table spoonful of iron scales, or equal portions of each, 
mix them together, breaking the scales fine. This 
makes a good cement, and is frequently used about salt 
works, for ealt pans, steam boilers, kc. The joint is 
made as follows : take two pieces of boiler iron, dish 
them a little, say from |- to J inch, according to the 
size of the patch, and put one or more bolts, as may be 
needed, through them ; fill the patches with cement, and 
screw them tight, and if you have time to let tlfem drv 
a day or two before using, all the better ; but they have 
been, and can be used as soon as made, in case of an 
emergency. I am told that steam boilers and salt pans, 
that have been cracked six or seven inches long, have 
been mended in this way, and some also requirinp 
patches as large as 8 inches square. These largo 
patches would require six or eight screw bolts. These ar*: 



Joints. 1:21 

inade tight by the cement, and do not require any gum* 
mets on the heads of the bolts. I mention this for the 
benefit of those not acquainted with these facts, so that 
in case of an emergency they can make a cement of 
this kind, where the other could not be had without 
having to send a great distance; and I have no doubt 
the owners of hundreds of country mills have gone to a 
great expense in getting boiler makers to come from a 
distance, or in hauling the boiler to town for repairs^ 
when if they had been acquainted with this fact they 
could have had the boiler mended at home for one-tenth 
or one-twentieth of the cost, saying nothing about loss of 
time, disappointment of customers, &c., and expense of 
keeping hands unemployed, as well as the capital invest- 
ed standing still. 



COPPER AND SHEET IRON JOrNTS. 

Copper joints are used in various parts of the steam 
engine. I have known sheet copper to be used between 
the bottom of the boiler and the flange on top of the 
^tand pipe, instead of lead or cement, as was formerly 
used. There was no danger of this either melting or 
blowing out; In using the sheet copper, it was necessary 
to have the circular flange on the stand pipe chipped 
md filed up true and straight, so as to fit the boiler, 
leatly. Before putting the copper in, it should be coat- 
d on both sides, and also the boiler and cast iron 
lange, with red or white lead ; then bolt or rivet 
:hem together as you please, riveting would be the best, 
)ut it IS the most expensive. The copper in this ease 
U 



122 I The Practical Engi^^eeh. 

would be about J inch thick. Sheet iron is also used 
frequently instead of copper. The reason of using the 
sheet copper and iron, is owing to having a cast iron 
flange on the stand pipe for the purpose of calking the 
joint between the boiler and the cast iron flange, to 
make a tight joint. "Where wrought iron stand pipes 
and flanges are used, it is not necessary to put anything 
in between, but calk th:^ "vr">ught iron flange on the 
pipe. Copper is preferable to wrought iron, as it is 
softer, and yields and bends itself easier than the iron. 
Thin sheet copper is often used between valve seats, caps, 
cylinder nozzles, steam chests, caps, &c. In such cases, 
it is necessary to have the faces turned or planed up 
true, and coated with red or white lead ; this will make 
a better joint than without. 

Copper rings are frequently used for gaskets for loose 
cylinder heads, man hole plates, &c. They are made 
in the following manner : get a | or f inch copper 
pipe made to suit the diameter of the cylinder head, or 
man plate, bore some holes in it and run it full of soft 
lead. This makes an excellent gasket, where it is ne- 
cessary to be taken apart often. Owing to the outer sur- 
face being harder than the lead, it lasts much longer, 
and is not so easily dinted. Square copper gaskets -j*^ 
and f inch square, may be made use of to good advan- 
tage inside of cement joints. They are preferable in 
some respects to lead, as lead gaskets have been known 
to be eaten entirely out, leaving the whole pressure of 
steam on the cement alone. Copper is much more 
durable, and being of a soft nature may be made steam- 
tight before driving in the cement. Square iron gaskets 
have also been used for the same purpose : they are used 



Joints, 123 

with and Avlthout lappmg. If the flange is very narrow, 
and not much room for cement, the iron had better bo 
lapped to insure a tight joint ; if the flange is very wide, 
and plenty of room, it will do without. The bolts should 
not be draw^n up very hard until the joints are made, 
and when made try and get a quarter or half turn of 
the nut more, to make the joint tight as possible. 



GROUND JOINTS. 

Ground joints are mostly used on locomotive engines, 
and also on various others. The object of using them is 
to make a more substantial job, and also to dispense 
with the use of gaskets. In order to keep them in good 
repair, it is necessary to oil them occasionally, to pre- 
vent them from rusting, which would be very destructive 
and also eat them in holes. It will be necessary, also, 
to grind them anew occasionally with oil and emery. 
These joints are very costly, and when once made should 
be kept in good order. In screwing them up, great 
care should be taken to screw them up evenly as possible, 
for by having one side tighter than the other, it would 
be liable to leak, and in this case you would require to 
slack the bolts on the high side, or otherwise by screw- 
ing up to make it tight, you would be sure either to 
spring the cylinder head, cap, or whatever it may be, 
or break the bolts, if not both, owing to the great lever- 
age of the plate on the gasket, which may be ten to one. 
This is what is called ''foul play.'' 

There is another advantage of ground joints on the 
oose cylinder head, the clearance is always about the 



12i The Practical Engineer. 

same, vvliereas with a lead g:asket you may have f inch 
thick when new, and only | or ^ when worn out. In this 
case you actually require as much more extra clearance 
at the beginning, in the packing end of the cylinder, 
as the gasket will be reduced by wear and waste about 
I inch, otherwise when the gasket becomes thin, the 
piston head bolts will strike on the cylinder head and 
break it ; especially if there should be any false motion 
in the pitman box, or the key become slackened. The 
loss of steam in this way, in the course of a year, 
would amount to considerable. Say J inch less the diam- 
eter of the cylinder every revolution, and the engine 
makes 108 revolutions per minute, there would be 84 
inches or 7 feet dead loss of steam per minute, 420 feet 
per hour, 4200 feet per 10 hours or in a day. In this 
item alone there would be steam enough lost to run the 
engine 25 minutes every 10 hours or l-24th part of 
the whole amount, supposing the cylinder to cut off at 
12 inches of the stroke. l-24th part of the power and 
fuel used on locomotives in a year would be a consider- 
able item alone. 



UNIVERSAL STEAM PIPE JOINTS. 

Universal cast iron steam pipe joints are now being 
used on locomotives, instead of copper as formerly, for 
the following reasons : the copper steam pipes used for 
conveying the steam from the boiler to the cylinder 
were continually giving out by corroding and wasting 
away, and they tried to prevent this by lapping the cop; 
per with sheet iron and wire, but to little or no purpose. 



Joints. 125 

It is possible the escape steam and ashes might have 
something to do with this. The copper no doubt was 
preferable to iron on account of yielding to the motion 
of the cars without breaking, but these pipes, owing to 
their peculiar shape and short bends, were hard and ex- 
pensive to make, and required to be replaced frequently 
with new ones, hence the necessity of resorting to cast 
steam pipes with universal joints, made so as to yield to 
the spring of the cars. There are two joints on each pipe, 
one on each end ; they are turned beveling, similar to a 
valve and seat, only the one is a little round, and the 
other a little hollow, so as better to suit a rotary motion. 
These pipes are said to be much better than the copper, 
inasmuch as they last much longer and do not eat out 
like the copper. The ashes and escape steam appear to be 
as destructive on the copper steam pipes of locomotives 
as the ashes and sweating are to supply drums of marine 
and stationary boilers for engines ; they too frequently 
have had to be replaced on account of corrosion. It is 
necessary that these pipes and drums should be kept 
clean and dry, in order that they may last longer. 



11* 



FIRE FRONTS, &c. 



FIRE FRONTS AND BACK PLATES. 

Heretofore, plain fire fronts were made without any 
lining whatever, and consequently often became so hot 
as to scorch the clothes of the firemen. The fronts on 
which the boilers stood would frequently bend and give 
way under the excessive heat, and had to be replaced 
often the same as we have now to replace our grate-bars. 
They were very dangerous, especially in case of collision. 



FIRE FRONTS LINED. 

Fire fronts have been made to receive different kinds 
of linings. Cast iron liners have been frequently made, 
but were found not to answer the purpose on account of 
having to be often replaced with new ones. At the 
present time it is common to line fronts with fire-brick, 
which is by far the best plan of any yet adopted. 
Sometimes the liners that are to receive the brick, are' 
cast on the fire fronts, and at other times cast separate- 
ly, and bolted on to the fire fronts with screw-bolts. 
The latter is the best plan. These fronts are quite cool 



Fire Fronts, &c. 127 

and pleasant for the firemen, and seldom need repairing. 
Another great improvement in fire-fronts would be to 
let the grate-bar bearer, in front of the liner, extend 5 
or 6 inches beyond the liners, having a recess for re- 
ceiving another course of brick, the narrow way, [see 
letter B, inside view of boiler, page 126,] (or lengthwise, 
if you please, 9 inches,) the casting to be, say 4 J inches 
in the clear. This would keep the furnace doors still 
more cool, and be easier on the edges of the liners. 
The fire in this place can do no injury to the fronts or 
liners, for want of air. Fire-fronts made according to 
this plan are the most durable that can be made. 



BURNING OUT GRATE-BARS, 

In order to prevent the burning out of the grate-bars, 
it is necessary that the ash-pit should be kept well 
cleaned out. Some ash-pits require cleaning out oftenei 
than others — depending altogether upon the depth. 
Formerly ash-pits were made so shallow as to require 
almost constant cleaning, and still they were continually 
burning out the grate-bars. Now they are much deeper, 
but still they must be cleaned out occasionally, yet not 
half so often as the shallow ones of former days. 
Another cause is, the bars are made entirely too light, 
with a thickness on top of about f of an inch, and 
as soon as the top edge burns off^ the bar is done. 



128 The Practical Exgineer. 



BACK PLATES. 

Back plates should be firmly fastened to the boilers. 
They are sometimes laid on top of the brick wall and 
on the top of the flue, with nothing to hold them fast 
to the boiler when expanding or contracting, and the 
result is, that the draft is partially destroyed, the smoke 
and sometimes sparks escape, making it quite disagree- 
ble. There is also much danger to be apprehended of 
fire from the sparks. The best plan for fastening them 
securely to the boiler, is to cast lugs on the back plates, 
drill holes in the lugs and boiler heads, and tap them, 
and then fasten the plate to the boiler head with set 
screws. The holes in luo^s should be a little larn-er than 
the set screws, and a little oblong, so that in case the 
boilers or walls should settle, there would be less danger 
of breaking the lugs ofi* the plates. Care should be 
t iken to have the bolts, when screwed up, to be slack 
enough to yield on the bolts, without which they would 
be liable to leak in case the boiler or the walls should 
settle. Cover the joint over with mortar, and the job 
will be complete. [See back plate on draft C] 



STEAM AND STAND PIPES. 



CAST IRON STEAM PIPES. 

In the early days of steamboating, the pipes used on 
steamers were made of cast iron altogether. The steam 
pipe, from the boiler to the cylinder, had a stuffing box 
and a slip joint allowing it to <3ome and go as the spring 
of the boat might require. The supply pipes, from the 
force pump to the boiler, were also made ^of cast iron. 
These were the kind of pipes used on the Western 
steamers about the year 1820. They answered very 
well for slow running boats, but as the speed of steam- 
boats began to increase something of a more malleable 
nature was required, — something that would yield and 
accommodate itself to the spring or settling of the boat, 
and not be liable to break or crack. But a few years 
elapsed, however, before this deficiency was supplied, and 
the cast iron were superseded by the copper steam and 
supply pipes, which proved to be far superior, and are 
still in general use. 

But we wish to call your attention more especially to 
the cast iron steam pipes, now gradually going out of 
use. Where they were strong they answered a very 
good purpose. Frequently, no doubt, steam and stand 



130 The Practical Engineer. 

pipes have been broken by the boat being ladened out 
of trim, or by its settling. Steam pipes are less liable, 
however, to be broken by the settling of the boat than 
stand pipes. Steam pipes have frequently been broken 
by coming too suddenly in contact with the shore when 
landing, or striking a bank or blufl', seriously injuring 
those on board by being scalded with hot steam. Pilots 
cannot be too careful in landing a boat, and should ap- 
proach the shore as steadily as possible. 

Wrought iron steam and stand pipes, we think, are 
still better, and will soon come into general use. They 
will come and go without danger of suddenly breaking. 
In this they are similar to the copper, but in other 
respects they are vastly superior to the cast iron pipes ; 
they need no joints, being riveted close to the boiler. 

We would recommend to all those who wish to fit out 
good boats to have wrought iron stand and steam pipes, 
and copper or wrought iron steam and supply pipes, 
from boiler to cylinder, and from force pump to boilers. 
Then there would be less accidents and fewer lives lost. 

I recollect some years ago the steamer Pulaski came 
in collision with the steamer Forest whilst running on 
the Allegheny river, which threw the boilers of the 
steamer Pulaski down, breaking the cast iron steam and 
supply pipes, and there were several persons killed, and 
eight or nine whom I visited were so badly scalded 
as to die in a few days afterwards. 

The wrought iron pipes are much lighter than the cast 
iron, and on this account are preferable for marine en- 
gines, as it is desirable to have the machinery as light 
as possible, so as to have a light draught boat and be able . 
also to carry more freight* 



Steam and Sta^t> Pipes, &c. 131 



CAST IRON STANDS CONNECTED WITH 
COPPER PIPE. 

The plan of cast iron stands with copper connecting 
pipes was in use at an early day in the history of steam. 
The boilers rested upon the stands, which were connect- 
ed, one with the other, by copper pipes, on each end of 
which were stuffing-boxes, so arranged as to allow them 
to come and go, so that there would be less danger of 
their breaking or leaking from the springing and surging 
of the boat. This, while it answered the intended pur- 
pose, was attended with great labor and expense. 



WROUGHT IRON STEAM PIPES AND DRUMS. 

Wrought iron steam pipes, placed upon the top of 
the boilers, are considered a great improvement, as 
there is no danger from breaking or cracking from the 
setttling or springing of the boat. Another advantage 
is the steam drum on the top of the boiler, which acts 
as a small reservoir, and is a preventive to the drawing 
of water. If any water at all may be drawn by the 
steam in this drum, it has a chance to go back and re- 
turn again to the boiler. It is not good policy to have 
too large a steam drum. We would say that there 
might be as much capacity in the steam drum as in the 
two cylinders. If it goes beyond this, the drum will 
act as an unnecessary condenser. It acts as a condens- 
er at the best ; still, it may be a necessary evil to pre- 
vent the drawing of water and' fi'wQ dry steam to use in 
the cylinder. ~ 



132 The Practical Engineer. 

It is not essential that the drum be very large, so 
that the openings from the boiler to the steam druml are 
sufficiently large to prevent the water from rising with the 
steam, as it is taken from the boiler into the steam drum. 

But if you wish to carry water high for the purpose 
of getting more fire sttrface in the boiler, then it would 
be necessary to have a large drum for a steam reservoir. 
The size of the steam drum would in this case de- 
pend on the extra height the water is carried in the 
boilers. Say you carry the water three inches higher 
than is usual, and by raising the brick work on the sides 
of the boiler & inches, also^ on each boiler 20 feet 
long, it would give 10 square feet more fire surface 
on each boiler • this w^ould make a considerable amount 
of extra steam over what would be lost by condensation 
and by carrying the water extra high, it would be far 
safer, especially for fined boilers. By this mode more 
steam would be made with the same boilers and ftrel, 
from the very fact of increasing the fire surface. This 
is the great object, to create the most steam with the 
least amount of fuel and boiler. It would also be less 
dangerous, especially for fiued boilers ; in such cases there 
would be comparatively little or no danger of flues col- 
lapsing from the surplus of water carried in the boilers. 
I would recommend its use on board of steamers where 
fuel and steam are objects of the utmost importance, 
and by all m3ans let this plan be adopted on marine en- 
gines. 



Steam and Stand Pipes, kc. 133 



WROUGHT IRON SUPLY-PIPES, 

Wrought iron supply pipes are now coming into gen- 
eral use, and we would say that they are superior to any 
heretofore in use. There is one thing, however, which 
we wish to impress upon the minds of persons fitting out 
large steamers, (or even small ones with large boilers.) 
It is, (and they should see to it,) that the last sheet of 
iron in the bottom of the boiler, on which the stand 
pipe is riveted, and upon which one end of the boiler" 
rests, should be f inch in thickness. It will then take 
a more general bearing upon the body of the boiler, 
than the small stand pipe with a narrow flange can do. 
This we consider essentially necessary to the making of 
a better and a stiffer job than can be done without it. 
It is the lack of stiffness in the boilers, at this point, 
owing to the small bearing of the stand-pipes on ^ inch 
iron, which causes them to spring up and down like a 
basket, or as though they were resting on a spring- 
board. When they come into rough water, or the waves 
caused by the passage of another boat, the safety-valve 
will spring up and down, bound and rebound, and causes 
the blowing off more or less steam, in proportion to its 
height in the boiler. 

We would sav to those who wish the boilers to stand 
on a good foundation, try the recommendation above 
noted ; you can lose nothing by it, but will be sure to 
gain what we have mentioned. The boiler will be stiffer 
and firmer than it was on the former plan. 

No donbt this is one cause of the many accidents that 
have occurred by the breaking of steam and supply 
' 12 



134 The Practical Engineer. 

pipes, and joints, and scalding many persons to death 
and injuring others. The flanges en the stand pipes 
should be large in diameter, so as to take hold on the 
body of the boiler as much as possible, that it may by 
this means have a more substantial foundation to rest on. 



DIFFERENT PLACES FOR ATTACHING STEAM 
AND STAND PIPES TO BOILERS. 

As a general thing, steam is taken from the boilers 
at the most conyenient place, to the engine. For our 
part, we do not think it makes much difference from 
what point it is taken. If we had our choice, and it 
was convenient to do so, we would prefer supplying at 
the back end of the boiler always, both river and land 
engines, and take the steam from the middle of the 
boiler, or from the end over the fire, where it is hotter 
and stronger. But on steamers, some take it from the 
back ring of the boiler, some from the -second, some 
from the third, some from the fourth, and some from 
the middle, &c. But we do not think that it would 
make any material difference where it is taken from ; 
we would prefer, however, to take it a little distance 
from where the water comes into the boiler. 



STEAM TAKEN FROM END OF PIPE. 

It is known by experience, to all those who have 
taken steam from two, three, and from six boilers, &Cv; 
at the end of the steam pipe, that it always draws th- 



Steam and Stand Pipes, kc. 135 

water to the side of the boiler from whence the steam 
is taken. On the side from which the steam is taken, 
the water will be found above the upper gauge cock, 
while in the far boiler it will be below the lower gauge 
cock. The diagonal line drawn on the six boilers [draft 
C, page 70,] shows the position of the water in the 
toilers. By the exercise of a little judgment in this 
case, the water may be brought very nearly to a level 
in the boilers; by opening the furnace doors beneath 
the boilers farthest off from where you take your steam, 
and firing up hard under the opposite ones. But to do 
this and keep up steam, would require more boilers than 
would be otherwise necessary. The steam should be 
taken from the centre of a double or single steam pipe 
attached to the boiler, where there are three, four, five, 
six, or more boilers, as seen on draft, page 71. 



BEST MODE OF TAKING STEAM FROM TWO OR 
MORE BOILERS. 

The best place for taking steam from two boilers is 
the centre of the connecting pipe. It may be taken 
from the side or top of the pipe ; the top would be pre- 
ferable to the side, as the water is drawn more or less by 
steam, and would be more likely to settle and fall back 
into the boiler. But it ought never to be taken out from 
below, if it can be avoided, because all the water drawn 
into the steam pipe, as well as the condensed steam, 
would have to pass off through the cylinder cocks and 
escapement, which would cause the engine to drag, as 
Avell as to be liable to burst or break the cylinder. 



I8d The Practical ENaiNEEK. 

Where the steam is taken off three or more boilers, 
the double steam pipe has been invented, having as many 
branches as boilers, fitted to the boilers, and on this pipe 
is another pipe having two openings, one on each side 
between the centre and each outside branch. This is 
truly a great improvement, as will be seen by the accom- 
panying drafts. (See page 144, pipe A.) 



STEAM TAKEN FROM STEAM DRUM. 

On two-boiler boats, many of which navigate our 
rivers, the steam is taken from each end of a steam 
drum. This is the safer and more practical mode for 
boats of that class; but it is said to be better that 
three and four boiler boats should have but one pipe 
from the centre of the steam drum, branching off to con- 
nect with the two engines. For four, five, six or more 
boilers, there should be two steam pipes, taken from the 
back of the steam drum to each engine. 

It would be a good plan, on large drums, to have a 
man-hole plate on each, so that the boilers can be cooled 
down sooner, when required to be cleaned out in a hurry, 
as they often have to be, especially about blast furnaces. 
I will state one instance. We made eight large boilers 
for a blast furnace, with steam and supply drum ; we had 
in them twenty-four man-hole plates, one in each end 
of the boilers, and one in each end of the steam and 
Supply drum. This gives more air within, and makes it 
more pleasant to the men, when cleaning out the boilers. 



STOP-COCKS, CYLINDER LUGS, &C. 



DANGER OF BRASS STOP-COCKS BETWEEN 
THE BOILER AND THE FORCE PUMP. 

Brass keys in stop-cocks require to be tightly screwed, 
to prevent them from leaking, and when thus secured, 
they are likely to corrode, and require the nut to be 
slacked off below, or the key to be hammered back, be- 
fore they can be turned; and unless there be a good 
thread and nut on the bolt below, they are liable to fly 
out in the act of turning them. Every engineer has 
witnessed this fact. If you turn the cock after it has been 
slackened, it will demand some eifort to tighten it again. 
A slight frost Avill so far destroy brass keys that they 
cannot be used until repaired. Thus it will be seen, they 
are more troublesome than profitable. 

The only way in which they can be used with safety 
for stop-cocks, between the boilers and the force pumps, 
is to screw the keys in with a bridle and a set screw. 
For this purpose, the stop-valve is used in its place, iu 
which it is superior. 

The key blew out once wh3n I was engineering on 
the Teinessee river. Owing to some defect in the 
force pimip, I had occasion to shut th ) water off be- 
12^ 



138 Thk Practical Engineer. 

tween the force pump and the boilers, until I would 
make an examination, and put the pump in order; and 
knowing that the screw in the key was not very good, 
being almost stripped, I Avent cautiously to work to turn 
it, and prepared myself for the worst, fearing it might 
blow out. I put a long wrench on the top of the key, 
and then took hold of a stanchion, and told those stand- 
ing by to keep out of the way. I then turned the wrench 
with my foot, and out came the key and emptied the 
boilers, immediately filling the boat Avitli steam and hot 
water. The steam was low and the fires were burnt 
down. No one was injured. I saw two other keys par- 
tially blown out in a similar way, one at an engine shop in 
Louisville, when the hands were at work, a little after 
dinner, another at a machine shop in Pittsburgh, 
whilst in the act of turning the keys. 



BLOW-OFF STOP-COCKS ON BOILER STANDS. 

This was the mode of blowing off' tlie water from 
steamboat boilers in their early history; they are, how- 
ever, liable to get out of order in the several ways al- 
ready mentioned. Their place lias been superseded by 
the use of the blow-off valve, which is superior to the 
old plan, being much safer. 



FREEZING OF STOP-COCKS. 

This is one of the greatest objections to the use of the 
brass stop-cock about a steam engine. They are liable 



Stop-Cocks, Cylinder Lugs, (fee. 139 

to be continually out of order, especially when subject 
to frost. They are more a matter of expense than profit. 
When used, great care should be taken to prevent 
them from freezing, by covering them and keeping them 
warm ; and where this cannot be done, it will be neces- 
sary to stop and let out all the water, to prevent damage 
being done by the frost. 



VARIOUS MODES OF CASTING CYLINDERS. 

It was customary to cast two nozzles on the one end 
of the cylinder in the early days of steamboating, and 
upon this plan were the majority of our engines con- 
structed. Latterly nozzles were cast upon each end of 
the cylinder. This plan was superior, on account of 
the side pipes being built on the nozzles, which were all 
cast on the cylinder. There was no necessity for taking 
them off when reboring the cylinder, as was done on 
the former plan. It made a much better and neater 
job, although it was attended with more risk in casting 
the cylinder, in case the top parts should be in any way 
deficient, for want of metal. 



FOUR LUGS CAST UPON THE CYLINDER. 

In early years, cylinders were made much shorter 
than those now in use. Four lup-s mia:ht well do for 
them, while they would not answer for the long cylinders 
now in use. Every old engineer has had the trial of them, 
and finds that the keys could not be kept tight on ac- 



140 TuK Pbactical Engineer. 

count of the continual expansion and contraction of the 
cylinder. If, when hot, it were closely keyed up, there 
would be danger of the lug breaking when the cylinder 
contracted by cooling. Who has not experienced this 
in practical engineering? The only way in which four 
lugs can be made to operate correctly, is to key fast one 
on either side, and leave the other without keys. This 
will do, but it leaves the expansion and contraction con- 
fined to one end of the cylinder. 

One plan of making the bed plates and keying up the 
cylinder lugs was to have the bed plate between the two 
end lugs even with the top of the lugs, and to have an 
ofi'set at each end of the bed plate, equal to the thick- 
ness of the cylinder lugs ; then one key was driven in 
at each of the offsets in the bed plate, on the inside of 
the lugs, to hold them fast, and there were no jogs 
nor keys on the outside of the lugs at either end. This 
was the worst plan that could be invented, because you 
could not key one lug tight without keying both tight, 
and to key both tight, when hot, would be apt to cause 
them to break when cooling. The cylinder I allude to 
as keyed up in this way, had one lug broken off. I did 
not understand how it was done, but no doubt this was 
the cause. A gentleman with whom I was talking on 
the subject, said he had one broken off in the same way. 
Doubtless there have been many others broken in a sirr.- 
ilar manner. 

Another late improvement is to cast both the side 
pipe and four valve-seats together. This is a good plan, 
as it takes up less room and requires fewer bolts and 
joints, and is less weighty, and, upon the whole, saves 
considerable labor; and in this wav, there is no dansrer 



Stup-Cocks, Oylinjjek Lugs, &c. 141 

of bloAving out joints around the valve-seats, as formerly, 
as none are required on this plan. 



FOUR NOZZLES CAST ON THE CYLINDER. 

It was, for a long time, considered an improvement to 
cast four nozzles on the steam cylinder, because it looked 
better and was more pleasing to the eye than the plan 
previously used. It made an artistic job. And when 
the cylinder required to be bored out again, it would not 
be necessary to take off the side pipes and fast cylinder 
head, as had to be done on the former plan. 



SIX LUGS CAST ON THE CYLINDER. 

The casting of six lugs on each cylinder has been done 
for many years, and has been found of great utility. 
The cylinder is keyed fast by the centre lug, and screwed 
fast to the cylinder timbers by the four end lugs. This 
gives the cylinder a fair chance to come and go, from 
the centre each way, to accommodate itself to the ex- 
pansion and contraction, without danger of breaking the 
lugs, as formerly. 



SUB-CYLINDER. 

In the early history of constructing steam engines, , 
there was much uncertainty connected with the casting 
of cylinders. For the purpose of avoiding risk and 



142 The Pii actio al Exgineer. 

diffiulty. there is no doubt the experiment of casting the 
sub cylinder Avas adopted. The main cylinder was cast 
without any nozzles, and but two on the sub-cylinder, 
which is bolted to the main cylinder; and the other two 
nozzles are cast on the cylinder head. 

The first engine of this construction was placed upon 
the steamer Hercules^, and was afterward used on the 
steamer Samson, It was the only one of the kind 
which came within our knovrledge; a:;d facts compel us 
to say, it worked admirably. It was constructed at Pine 
Creek, (near Pittsburgh,) Allegheny County, by Mr. 
Belknap. But as there is less risk in making castings 
now than formerly, it would not be advisable to adopt 
this plan, as it requires more metal, labor and joints. 



STROKE OF CYLINDER. 

In the early days of steam, we used much smaller 
cylinders with longer stroke than we now do, and worked 
steam, nearly full stroke on the piston, |- to |^, &c. Our 
cylinders in use at the present day arc nearly twice the 
diameter and half the stroke of those formerly used, and 
the steam generated in the boilers raised to a much 
higher pressure to the square inch. They cut oflF more 
closely in the cylinder — sometimes J stroke, f , and f , 
&:c., in order to make as much from the expansion of the 
steam as possible. 

The remarks in recrard to the long; and short boilers, 
may well be applied to the long and short stroke cylin- 
ders. When persons are about changing from one thing 
to another, and find the chancre for the better, they are 



Pa^.eTf, 




Stop-Cocks, Cylinder Lugs, &c. 143 

apt to carry it to the contrary extreme, and overdo their 
work in their search after improvement. The medium 
stroke, between the long and the short, as a general 
thing, is the safer, more economical, more powerful, and 
of more utility for all practical purposes. 

It is customary to make the stroke of stationary en- 
gines twice the diameter of the cylinder. There are 
exceptions, where the stroke is longer or shorter. The 
advantage of short-stroke engines for stationary purpo- 
ses, is to get a fast speed, in order to avoid the necessity 
of using so much gearing, as was customary when using 
the long-stroke engine. 



SLIDES, PITMANS, PILLAR 
BLOCKS, &C. 



BEARING, THICKNESS AND WIDTH OF SLIDES. 

Slides should be so made as to have a large bearing 
on the part where the shoving-head jaws are to run, in 
order that they may bear up under the weight of heavy 
pitmanSj shoving-head, piston rod, &c,, otherwise the 
cylinder cannot long continue in line. Our slides for- 
merly had not more than one-fourth the bearing thej- 
should have had, to st:md the wear they were subject to, 
and which the necessities of the boat which they were 
propelling required. 

The slides should be much thicker than they are ordi- 
narily made, so that both the bearing and the balance 
of the slide will not spring in screwing down. Slides 
are very often made too narrow, and by reason of this, 
they do not get sufficient bearing on the timber to keep 
them from rolling. There is another thing which should, 
as much as possible, be guarded against; that is, the 
putting of bolts in a straight line in the centre of the 
slide, as may be seen in plate F. They should be placed 
out and in, as may be seen in draft, plate K. This 
holds them m_ore firm than when on a straio:ht line. 



^a;^e SI 



[J- 


- 




^ 


^P^^^ 











iLa_ 


or, 


i 


Slides. 





3 


3 3 






c 



Tl. 



uf ^or 




I^e.^^e.SQ. 



K. ^J 



J 



0^ ^A. 



Wrist's. 

— n 



"1 - 

•1 — I 



1. ^ 



n 5 




Pa.^e.53. 



l^'t 






^ 



.Ta^e.50.! ft 



ou^ble ::)tea.TrLPipe 
Si; eaiTx Pfp e . B 





Slides, Pitmans, Pillar Blocks, &c. 146 

On the timbers H, may be observed another mode of 
putting on slides, which was in use in the early stages 
of steamboat navigation. (See plate H, page 144.) In 
the middle of the slides there should be a groove, planed 
within one or two inches of each end, to retain the oil^ 
so as to lubricate the slide to better advantage. 



LENGTH OF SLIDES, 

The length of the slides, for river engines, should 
alwavs be from one to one and a half inches shorter 
than the stroke of the engine and the brass in the shov- 
ing-head, so that the jaws will work over the slide at 
each end in such a manner as to keep a lump from rising 
on the end of the slide, as would inevitably be the case 
were the slide longer than the stroke of the engine and 
shoving-head jaws. If the slides be longer than this^ 
and the jaws screwed close to the slides, to keep them 
from back-lashing on the slides, which they are likely 
to do, the lump would be in proportion to the amount of 
room or space left between the shoving-head jaws and 
slides. If the jaws are as close to the slides as they 
should be, and the slides longer than we have mentioned, 
after having been worn for a season, they will have a 
rise on each end of the slides, just equal to that which 
has been worn down ; and as the pitman shortens by 
wear, it forces itself upon the thick part of the slide, and 
may stress the thread of the bolt, thus causing the en- 
gine to labor as it revolves over the centre, especially if 
it pinches tight on the slides. 

If backing be put in, to lengthen the pitman, it will 
13 



146 The Practical Engineer. 

^York the same at the other end of the slides. This is 
the reason why we think it would be better to have the 
slides a little short ; thus you need have no charge on 
your rnind for the safety and security of the engine. 
All the intricacies about engines, beyond what is abso- 
lutely necessary, should be avoided. They not only 
tend to confuse and puzzle the engineer, but cause 
him unnecessary labor. The more simple the engine 
can be constructed, so that it has all necessary appli- 
ances, the better ; it will take less labor to manage it, 
and engineers are well aware that they have little time 
to lose while running the plainest and best engines. 



SHOVING-HEADS BORED OUT. 

Shoving-heads should always be bored out in a lathe. 
The centre of the wrist on the shoving-head should be 
parallel with the centre on the lathe, while the opposite 
end is being bored out. This is the only way that the 
centre of the piston rod can be brought true to the 
centre of the wrist on the shoving-head. In early days, 
they were bored out with a reamer and lever by hand, 
and it was a rare thing to get a true hole in this way. 
If it happened to be in the centre, all was I'ight, and if 
not, it was thought that it made no particular difference. 
If the jaws on the shoving-head stood a little above the 
centre or to the one side, they generally set the slides 
to suit them. This mode of doing business was not cor- 
rect : nevertheless, these things I know to be facts. 



Slides, Pitmans, Pillak Blocks, ik,c, 14" 



BOLTS FOR SHOVING-HEAD JAWS. 

It is within my recollection of once having witnessed 
a steamer with four boilers. Were it necessary her 
name could be given. She had twenty -four inch cyl- 
inders, and from five to six feet stroke. We give it 
not as a certainty, but as recollection warrants. She 
had but one bolt in each of the shoving-head jaws, and 
we understood from the engineers that it answered the 
purpose for which it was intended. 

Wo do not approye of shoving-head jaws, large or 
small, with only one bolt. They are not gafe3 for this 
reason : there is nothing to prevent the bolt from work- 
ing out, if the nut happened to be a little slack. The 
bolt will instantly drop from its position, because there 
is nothing to hold it. In order to keep the nut from 
turning and working, it should be a little tight — that is, 
the nut on the end of the bolt. The bolt will then drop 
out while the engine is working, unless a jam nut be 
used. 

It is within the knowledge of many engineers, that 
this has happened, even with two bolts in the jaws. 
When this has happened, the nuts were made fast from 
turning, by a piece of vfood being driven between the 
nuts ; the bolts will then sometimes, after all precau- 
tions, turn and find their way out. 

The object we have in view, in reference to two and 
three bolts, is that the nuts upon the shoving-head jaws 
may be locked so that they cannot be turned ; this may 
be done by driving a piece of wood between the nuts. 
If this should not answer, it is necessary that the bolts 



148 The Pkaotioal ENiiiNEER. 

should be kept from turning. This may be done in two 
ways : one is by having square holes in the lower jaws ; 
the other, by making such large heads upon the bolts 
so that they cannot pass one another. The latter is 
considered the easiest plan, and will answer all useful 
purposes. In this way, and by these means, the nuts 
may be held fast to the bolts. 

The reason win two or three bolts should be preferred 
in a shoving-head jaw, is simply this : when they are 
secured, as above mentioned, they are safe in the hands 
of any person, whether he understands his business or 
not. It would also be safe in the hands either of a fire- 
man or a boy, because the bolts are thus rendered sta- 
tionary, until they are unlocked by drawing out the 
wood or iron which may have been put in between the 
nuts for the purpose of holding them fast. Now, by 
way of contrast, the author will give his views, while he 
feels the spirit and interest of the subject strongly upon 
him. The subject now in review may seem a small mat- 
ter, but it is truly important. In the beginning of the 
remarks upon this branch, it will be remembered that 
strong objections were made against the use of but one 
bolt in the jaw of a large shoving-head, for the reason 
that it might possibly work out or break. It might do 
so, in case of friction produced by working dry slides, 
or from other causes, which nothing but experience and 
practice can avoid. 

It should be impressed upon the minds of all who read 
and understand what they read, that that which is per- 
fectly safe within itself, and completely under the contr* 1 
of one man, would be quite dangerous and unmanageable 
in the hands of another. Now, the author can, and 



Slides, Pitmans, Pillar Blocks, kc. 149 

there are many others within his acquaintance who can 
take the largest steamer that floats on the Ohio, and 
run her engine with safety with but one bolt in the 
shoving-head jaw, provided that bolt is as perfect as it 
ought to be when it comes from the hands of the ma- 
chinist who forged it. The nuts should not ba loose 
upon the bolts, but should, on the contrary, be so tight 
as to turn easy with the short wrench, accompanied by 
the use of a second wrench to hold the head of the bolt 
below. They must be screwed hard and fast to the 
papers between the shoving-head jaws, in order both for 
safety and use. If the slide be constructed on the long 
order, as heretofore described, as the pitman shortens 
it will crowd upon the thick part of the slide, and be 
very likely to strip the thread or break the bolt. Herein 
lies the difficulty with all but the most experienced en- 
gineers ; for if the nut be put on slack, or loosely, as it 
is in many other places, the engine will become unsafe 
and mimanageable. All having control of steam engines 
should be careful to understand this, as much harm 
might readily result from neglect, carelessness or inex- 
perience. Therefore, it is better that two bolts be used, 
because Avhere the inexperienced may not be able to get 
along with one bolt, the scientific man might work his 
engine with a bolt even of smaller dimensions. The one 
would not. know how to keep it in position. A jam nnt 
might answer the purpose, but there are many who have 
not sufficient constructiveness to think of such an ex- 
pedient. 

But lest the length of the remarks upon this branch 
should weary the reader, it may be said, in conclusion, 
that although some persons can work with but one bolt 
18- 



150 The Practical Engineer. 

where others could not, on account of the superior skHl 
and judgment which some possess in a greater degree 
than others, yet it would be the sounder policy that all 
engines, from the smallest to the largest, which have 
labor to perform, should be supplied with two bolts to 
the smaller, and three to the larger, for the reason that 
if by chance or accident one bolt should break, the other 
one, or two, as the case may be, will altogether likely 
hold out until it has been discovered wherein the weak- 
ness consists. 

It may well be considered a nice matter, where paper 
is used in a shoving-head, to so adjust it as that in every 
way it shall fit on the slides, both above and below, as 
well as upon the outer and inner edges of the slides. 
There is a great degree of skill required on the part of 
those who undertake this difficult job, to accomplish it 
as it should be done ; and when it is well done, it is, in 
many respects, far superior to any set screws which may 
be used for reo-ulatino; the brass liners which are mov- 
able on the jaws. 

There has been much said on this branch of the 
treatise, and much more might be said, but prudence 
requires that it should be cut short, as there are other 
branches that require attention. 



LENGTH OF PITMANS. 

It used to be a general rule to make pitmans three 
times the length of the stroke. Some have used them 
shorter than this, say about two and two and a half length:^ 
of stroke : hnt these are considered, however, exceptions 






Slides, Pitmans, Pillak Blocks, &c. 151 

to the rule. It has been customary for rolling mills 
to construct their pitmans one foot longer than three 
lengths of the stroke. We do not vary but slightly 
from this rule at the present day in the construction 
of land engines. But for river engines, they should be 
about four times the length of the stroke, as a general 
thing. There may, however, be exceptions, and more 
or less length used in order to accommodate the pecu- 
liarities of the engine for which they are intended to be 
used. There may be forcible objections urged against 
the use of long pitmans. They not only are more 
liable to spring in their w^orking than short ones, but 
add much to the weight which bears upon the top of 
the slides, and on the crank-wrists to which they are 
connected. Thus it will readily be observed that the 
friction must be greatly increased. There is a medi- 
um between the long and short pitmans" which should 
always be observed by the builder. Extremes ought, 
in all cases, to be avoided. 

Some pitmans have been made of locust, and others 
of curly maple, and others of hard wood, but as a gen- 
eral thing they are made of white pine. 



WOODEM PITMANS, 

The pitmans of our steamers are mostly, if not in 
fact universally, made of wood (light pine wood), and 
this has been found to answer the purpose admirably, 
when carefully watched and kept in perfect working 
order. Exceeding caution should be observed in the 
adjusting of the pitman straps, in order that the tira- 



152 The Practical Engineer. 

bers be not cut too lean next the brass boxes, because 
this would, when screwed up, throw the jaws too wide 
apart at the point. 

On eastern American rivers, as also on ocean steam- 
ers, pitmans are all made of wrought iron. A wooden 
one would be as great a novelty to them as a wrought 
iron one would be to those who navigate the western 
waters. 

IRON PITMANS. 

Iron pitmans for the most part remain about the 
same as when first constructed; but wooden ones re- 
quire continual watching, and more or less screwing up, 
as the timber from which they are made shrinks ; and 
moreover, there is much danger from their liability to 
rot. The ex^iosure to which they are subject, in all 
kinds of weather, is certain, sooner or later, materially 
to affect them. This fact requires vigilant watching on 
the part of those in charge of river engines. 



PLACING IN WRISTS. 

In order that wrists may be kept firmly in their place, 
it will not answer to give too large a draft, because the 
larger the draft, the more vredge-like it becomes; hence 
the easier pulled out. It ought not to taper more than 
one-fourth of an inch to six inches in length, and give 
three-eighths draft in the key-hole ; when drawn firmly 
up, split the key or keys, and all will be right. 



Slides, Fitmans, Pillak Block;s, &€. 168 

COLLAR-WRISTS AS FORMERLY USED, 

(See plate 4, A.) This was a bad way of putting in 
wrists, and the only object that could have induced its 
adoption, must have been to save a little iron on the 
back of the collar, but its construction costs more in 
labor than the difference of iron would amount to. 

If this wrist should at any time be drawn np to the 
collar, and should happen to work loose, it could not be 
ascertained by reason of the collar, without especial 
attention. If it be found loose, the only remedy is to 
take it out and bush it- It would be found that the fault 
consisted in making the wrist too small to allow sufficient 
bearing to hold itself in form without chawing and work- 
ing loose^ 



WRISTS AS NOW USED. 

Either of the secured wrists will answer the purpose. 
(See diagram H, No, 5.) The wrist B was not brought 
into use until long after the wrist A, which has here- 
tofore been fully alluded to. It was of greater utility, 
and worked to better advantage, because it had no 
collar to prevent its being drawn up if slack; nor had 
it any obstruction to prevent its being bushed, if found 
necessary. 

It was found to be much more convenient, and far 
more practical, because it worked more easily. It had 
no collar to look after and fit in or see to, when it be- 
came loose ; nor had it any play from the motions of the 
engines. liy use of a large wrist, there is greater 



164 The Practical Engineer. 

strength and more bearing, which prevented hard key- 
ing and heavy pressure upon the wrist,' Avhen performing 
its labor, and from bedding itself in the eye, as a small 
wrist will always do. 

C is a wrist which is larger on the back end; this was 
found necessary from the use of w^rought-iron cranks, 
for the purpose of boring out the holes, both of them 
true from one side, without changing the crank in the 
lathe; whereas, if it were changed, in order to bore out 
the other side, it w^ould be almost impossible to get the 
two holes as true to each other as on the former plan. 
The outside collar is sometimes separate, and screwed on 
with a set-screw. The only object of this would be to 
save iron ; it is bad policy, although it has, in many in- 
stances, been found to work well. In many more, it 
might be found the cause of much trouble. The wrist 
should be in one piece, as may be seen in plate I. 



WRISTS WITHOUT KEYS. 

This plan has been introduced lately upon the Western 
waters. It is the putting in of wrists, in the cranks of 
our steamboats, without keys. They are made with 
little or no draft, and are forced in by means of a screw, 
which being properly adjusted, the Avrist is riveted in, or 
hammered a little around the outside edge of the wrist. 
This plan has been practically tried, and many engineers 
bear testimony that it has answered the purpose admi- 
rably ; but in all cases it Avould be much better that the 
WTists should be firmly keyed in, so that they could be 
taken out, and turned anew, after having been used for 
a while, and vrorn out of true. 



Slides, Pitmans, Pillar Blocks, &c. 155 

If it becomes necessary that a wrist should be taken 
out, which has been forced in and burred, it would, be- 
yond doubt, become necessary to take off the crank and 
carry it to a shop, in order to have the burr cut off, and 
it will require to be placed under a screw, in order the 
more conveniently to be taken out. 



BOTTOM BRASSES IN PILLAR BLOCKS. 

In the early history of our steamers, as a general 
thing, they made no use of bottom brasses, but instead 
thereof used side brasses, considering this sufficient, 
inasmuch as the labor of the engine is principally fore 
and aft upon the side boxes. Notwithstanding this, 
there was still found to be considerable wear on the bot- 
tom blocks, owing to the weight of the main shaft and 
fly-wheel ; and owing to a little wear of the pillar-blocks 
(for want of the bottom brasses) the whole block might 
be lost, which otherwise would last as long as the rim of 
a fly-wheel that would be as good when the boat is worn 
out as on the day when it was placed on board. 



KEYS IN SIDE BOXES. 

Side boxes are frequently keyed up to the journals by 
means of narrow keys through the caps, with four holes 
cast in the pillar block, for the purpose as well of secur- 
ing the keys as they are driven down, as of keeping 
the side-boxes tight to the journals. Objections to the 
u?:p of these keys may be urged for many reasons: they 



The Practical Engineer. 

weaken the cap as well as the pillar block ; they may 
slip "back and leare the hoxes loose ; and being thus ex- 
posed to view., at all times, they may often be driven 
down when there is no occasion, and thereby heat the* 
shaft, and on this account produce unnecessary friction. 
Sometimes the keys are drawn up with a screw through 
the cap, having the thick part of the wedge below. They 
are also liable to cut the shaft and boxes unnecessarily. 



BACKING IN SIDE BOXES. 

This mode may be considered much better than any 
other plan now in use. When the boxes are once keyed 
up to the place, and the caps on, there is no danger of 
your backing coining out ; and at any time when side- 
boxes are becoming slack, the cap can be taken off 
(which should be done immediately on discovery of 
looseness), and the slack may be taken up by putting in 
a thin piece of sheet-iron,. 



SET SCREWS FOR SIDE BOXES» 

Set screws are also used for tightening up side boxes,, 
but there is the same danger in using them, as in the* 
keys; there is danger of screw^ing them up too tight, 
and thereby heating and cutting the side boxes and 
journals of the shaft, and causing the engine to labor 
and drao-. And owing to the email size of the set 
screws, and the heavy pressure on the side boxes, when 
the engine is running, they are liable to bed the points 



Slides, Pitmans, Pillar Blocks, &c. 157 

of the screws into the side of the boxes, and work holes 
in them, and, at the same time, stave up the points of 
the set screws, so as to render it difficult to get them out. 
They are also more expensive to fit up. When they are 
used, it would relieve the set-screws to fill in between 
them Avith backing. 



BORING OUT PILLAR BLOCKS. 

To make anything like perfect pillar blocks, it is ab- 
solutely necessary that they should be bored out as 
smooth and as true as a cylinder, and each block faced 
ofi" on each side perfectly true in the lathe. In early 
days, they were used as they came out of the foundry, 
after scraping ofi" the sand and chipping off the lumps ; 
and, on this account, the friction of the engine was much 
greater, and the shafts wore out much more quickly^ 
than those of the present day. 



LARGE COLLARS ON SHAFTS, 

Our large steamers should all have large collars on 
^)ach side of the journals, varying from one to one and 
a half inches, as the collars on the shaft always bear 
hard on the pillar blocks, when the boat is on a list. 
Thus it will be sufficiently plain that a false motion is 
continually on the increase; this can be remedied by 
cutting the side-boxes in two pieces and driving a key 
between the brass and trie collar on the pillar blocks. 



14 



158 The Practical E^ginkbr, 



SMALL COLLARS ON SHAFTS, 

In the early years of steamboating, there were four 
shafts^ and they all had small collars. In a yery short 
time, during the running of the honi^ these collars would 
he found to have bedded themselres in the pillar blocks 
on both sides ; and this, in addition to the back lash in 
the coupling Hoeks then in use, would make a tremen- 
dous noise as the boat would roll from one side to the 
other, while making short turns, which would be quite 
as unpleasant to a nerrous or sensitive person, as the 
sound of trip-hammers. 



JOINTS. 



COXTINUED. 



PINE BOARD JOINTS. 

Joints have frequently been used on our steamers, 
made of white pine, mostly between the bottom of the 
heater and side-pipe flange, for the escape of steam. I 
am also informed that pine has been used for the sup- 
ply pipe leading from the force pump to the boiler, and 
that it stood well. If it stood the pressure here, I be- 
lieve it would stand it for the steam pipes also. There 
is no doubt about this, if the flange is wide and has 
plenty of bolts. These, like all other joints, require to 
be watched and screwed up occasionally, until they are 
perfectly bedded and solid. 



PACKING YARN AND ROPE JOINTS. 

Gaskets for man and hand-hole plates, also, cylinder 
heads, valve caps, &c. have often been used, made of the 
above materials, and answered very well. I have used 
them for the man-hole plates^ when running as engineer 
on the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, and never had any 
trouble. If the place between the man-hole plate and 



IdJ The Practical E^GiNEKii. 

the boiler head is not true, as is often the case, and if 
the man-plate casting should be warped, something more 
pliable than lead should be used, as lead is hard to bed 
up, and there is danger of breaking the platen, lugs, &c. 
When lead gaskets are used, they should be round or 
diamond, then they will bed up easily. 



CANVAS JOINTS. 

Canvas joints are used to good advantage for steam 
and supply pipe joints. Take three or four layers, 
owing to the thickness required to make the joints, 
putting a coat of white lead between each layer. Then 
screw it up tight, and, if you have time, let it dry a few 
days before using, to harden the lead. If heat is applied 
immediately, it melts the white lead out, and it runs 
away. These joints are equal, if not superior, to gum ; 
and country millers, as well as others, could use old 
wornout bags and canvas of almost any description, and 
joints made in this way would not cost more than about 
one-twentieth part of the price of gum. (N. B. There 
are two kinds of gum ; the one is mixed, and the other is 
filled in with several layers of canvas, and is preferred 
for steam-joints on this accouut. It costs more than 
the mixed. I. believe, if the canvas is tolerably good, 
not too old, and well saturated with white lead, and has 
time to dry before using, it will make a more solid and 
durable joint than gum.) 



Joints. 161 



GASKET PAPER JOINTS. 

Gasket paper has been universally used for making 
certain joints about the steam engine, such as the joints 
between the heater and the side pipe, and all the water 
pipes connected with the heater, also the feed pipe from 
the heater to the force pump. It has also been used in 
all joints about the steam engine, excepting those con- 
nected with the boiler, steam and supply pipes, &c. I 
mention this for the benefit of employers, as well as en- 
gineers, as a great many use gum, where paper would 
do as well, and costs only about one eighth the price. I 
have known paper to be used on the outer end of the 
boiler stand pipes, for the blow-off cock of high pressure 
engines, about thirty-five years ago. They were almost 
equal to a ground joint, only they would be required to 
be made anew every time they had to be taken apart, 
which was seldom necessary, unless the cock should get 
out of order by the frost or otherwise. 

About the year 1860, I was called on to make some al- 
terations on the steamer Wm. Dennis. Her engines were 
built in Bufiiilo, N, Y. I had occasion to take off the 
steam chest and cap, which were both planed up, and 
had thin gasket paper joints about one inch w^ide, above 
and below. I was surprised, never having seen it in use 
here before. I asked the owners how it stood; they 
said, first-rate. From this time my attention was called 
to this fact, and I thought I would try it also, not seeing 
why it would not do. I have tried it since on the fast- 
head of a cylinder used at Shoenberger's rolling mill, 
where steam is carried at about 120 lbs. per square inch. 
14^^ 



Ifte Ths Practical Bistgij^ebr. 

I have used it also about the check blow-off and safety 
valve chambers for two double-flued boilers, to drive 
BoUman & Garrison's new engine. I have also tried it 
on many other engines, and find it to answer Tory well. 

Since writing the above, I have inquired of one of my 
old bosses, who was one of the best engineers of his day 
on the western waters, and who has been engaged for 
about twenty years in Pittsburgh, building the largest 
class river and lake steamers, about using gasket paper 
joints for steam pipes, &c. He told me they were used 
for the steam pipe joints leading from the boilers to the 
cylinders, and also for the blow-off cock joint on the 
outer end of the boiler stand pipe, &c., and he said they 
answered very well. On the next day, I met John 
Warden, his old partner in engine-building, and asked 
him if the paper joints were used in early days. He 
said they were, and that they answered a first-rate pur- 
pose. He told me he believed the paper to be better 
than gum. The reason he gave for this was, the gum 
being so very soft would squeeze outside of the flange, 
while the paper, being hard and solid, would not. In 
one instance, he said, the gum closed up the opening so 
much as to prevent the engine from running, and there 
was considerable time lost and search made before the 
cause of the difficulty was discovered. 

I mention this, because I believe there have been 
many instances of a similar kind; and although the 
opening in many cases may not be entirely closed, so 
as to stop the engine from running, yet it may be closed 
so much as to cause it to labor very hard by holding the 
steam back, and causing it to be wire-drawn, by forcing 
its way through a small opening, and destroying in a 



Joints. 168 

great measure the force of the steam on the piston head. 
I have tried the gasket paper for joints at home, first on 
our own engine, and then I tried it abroad, and am 
satisfied that it will hold steam or hot water, as well as 
gum. (N. B. As the paper is very hard and solid, and 
will not yield so much as gum, hence it will be neces- 
sary that the faces of the castings for the joints be 
tolerably true, and have a sufficiency of bolts.) 



VARIOUS CAUSES FOR JOINTS BLOWING OUT, 

AND LEAKING. 

In the early days of steamboating, it was very com- 
mon for some one or other of the joints about the engine 
to blow out or commence to leak badly. I will men- 
tion some of the joints that were most likely to give out 
first, and then tell you the different causes. First, the 
connection block joints between the boilers, the steam 
and stand pipes for the same, cylinder heads and valve 
seat joints, and in fact there is very little dependence to 
be put in any of the joints the way they were made. 
Joints, in early days, were mostly made of cement, 
formed of iron borings and sal ammoniac. The connec- 
tion blocks between the boilers and the stand pipes below 
were made of this kind of cement, and they would often 
leak and blow out. No doubt, one cause was the want 
of more screw bolts. The joints may have been tight 
where the screw bolts were, but the space between the 
thin boiler plate being so great, the iron would swell up 
between the bolts so as to allow the joint to leak, where- 
as there should have been another bolt between every 



164 The Practical E^'i^ixkek. 

two then in use. Another cause for leaking was owing 
to the cement not havincj been sufficiently U^iht driven 
in all round, leaving the joint open and porous. There 
is another cause, which perhaps has given more trouble 
than any other about the steam enn-'me. I allude to the 
gummets used on the bolt heads for the boiler checks 
and stands, also on the heads of the bolts inside of the 
heater, ke. These gummets are mostly made of packing 
yarn, fitted tight around the heads of the bolts to pre- 
vent them leakinc): ; but in a verv short time thev will 
require to be watched, and frequently screwed up, in 
order to keep them tight. If this is neglected, the bolts 
will commence to leak, and then the joints will cut 
and blow out. Another crreat source of annoyance to 
engineers has been, that the holes in the boilers, and 
also in the heaters, have generally been made round, 
and the bolts were also made round to fit the sam-:^, where- 
as the holes should be square, with square necked bolts. 



GUM JOINTS. 

Gum joints are one of the latter-day inventions, and 
when first introduced, were looked upon by many with 
suspicion, and thought to be rather a novel kind of ma- 
terial for making joints. But they soon came into general 
use. for several reasons: one is, they are easily made, 
and require less than one-fourth the time to make a 
lead one, and if the joints when made should leak, the 
gum will be more easily screwed tight, as it is more 
pliable than lead, and on this account there is less dan- 
ger of breaking the flanges by hard screwing, when ne- 



Joints. 16.5 

cessary to make tight joints, as is often the case when 
the faces of the flanges are uneven for want of planing 
or turning. I believe gum to be one of the most costly- 
materials that can be used for joints ; it lasts but a short 
time till it bui^ns out, and soon becomes very brittle. 
If the gum joints require to be taken apartj as they 
frequently do, they must be replaced with gum, unless 
it is copper-lined to prevent it from sticking and tearing 
to pieces, as they generally do, when put on without 
copper lining. The use of the gum joints I consider 
one of the most costly items to keep up an engine. I 
do not allude to the first cost, but they are a continual 
expense, so that there is no end to the cost; for al- 
most every time you take off a cap, cylinder head, man 
or hand-hole plate, you will be likely to require some 
new gaskets, 

HAT JOINTS. 

For the benefit of the public, and especially country 
millers, and others living far from cities, I mention that 
I have tried this experiment. I had to make a new 
joint under our safety valve pipe, on top of the boiler, 
and for the purpose used an old hat. It stood first rate, 
and is still standing. This same material will do for 
any joints about the engine not exposed to the fire. 
This inforination may be very useful to some persons 
whose engine joints may be burnt or rotted from age, 
and blown out ; and may save them from traveling scores 
and in some cases even hundreds of miles to purchase 
joint materials, and in this way the establishment and 
hands can be kept going, customers accommodated^ and 



166 The Practical Bngixekh. 

mucli time, expense, labor and disappointment saved. 
This material will answer as well as gum, and joints 
made in this way will cost little or nothing comparative- 
ly, as they may be made of worn or otherwise almost use- 
less materials. 

MUSLIN JOINTS. 

Puppet valve seats that have been turned, and the 
side pipes and cylinder nozzles having been planed up 
true, joints have been made by putting in a single layer of 
cotton muslin, coated with red or white lead. When 
screwed up tight, this makes a first rate joint, and re- 
quires a great deal less labor than it would to grind or 
scrape, and answers every purpose. It will also do for 
valve caps, steam chests, &c., or any other joint dressed 
up in similar style, w^hich is not exposed to the action 
of the fire. 

CASSIMERE JOINTS. 

Joints for steam and supply pipes have been made 
out of old cassimere pants, to answer as well as gum. 
paper or lead. We have an old engineer working with us 
who has had considerable experience in engineering 
about salt wells, &c., and has worked many years in 
Pittsburgh, he says he has made a great many of these 
joints, and they stand very well. N. B. They can also be 
made out of an old worn-out overcoat, or cloth of any 
kind will answer. In this way thousands of dollars 
might be saved yearly, which are otherwise unnecessaril^F 
expended no doubt for want of information on thh 
subject. 



Joints, 1(57 



HOW TO MAKE AND RUN LEAD GASKETS„ 

It has been customary with some persons in getting a 
mouldboard ready to cast elliptic gaskets^ to cut them 
out, in a board, to the shape of the man or hand-hole 
plate, &c. This is not necessary. Add the long and 
short diameter together, and one-half of this will be the 
size to turn your gasket board, and it can be done much 
tieater and better than you can cut it out by hand. I 
bave found out, after many years experience, that it is 
not a good plan to cast them in this way, as they very 
often break in shrinking and cooling, unless the lead be 
5xtra good and tough. If the lead is second-hand, 
then it will not pay to cast them in this manner. The 
better plan is^ to bend a piece of f or f inch round iron, 
and make a pattern to the size, and cast it in a flask in 
sand. In this way there will be less danger of breaking, 
IS the sand will yield to the shrinkage, I have seen 
Bome break in this may, but not often. 



SOFT CEMENT JOINTS- 

Soft cement is a composition, made of about J red 
ead, f white lead, and as much clean cast-iron borings 
18 can be worked into it, to make it of the consistency 
[)f putty. The borings if not clean should be sifted 
through a fine sieve. This is said to make a first-rate 
3ement. Such joints, I am informed by a skillful en- 
gineer, are used on lake and ocean steamers, and will 
:i^ s^voTfti Mtiitks. H« 8a^8 h^ ksM k»«w« ^dur^ 



168 Thij Pkac^ical Engikekr. 

where the boilers hare been cracked 4 and 5 feet long^ 
and cracked one-fourth round the boiler ; and that boil- 
ers 4 and 6 feet diameter have been mended in this way^ 
by taking a piece of boiler plate, 5 or 6 inches wide, 
and the length of the crack, and making it a little hollow 
in the middle, so as to receive the cement. The bolts on 
each side should be a^ close together as the nuts will 
turn to clear each other. The plate of boiler iron has 
a flange turned on each side about | of an inch, for the 
purpose of holding in the cement. It is put on in the 
following manner : Rub the inside of the patch over 
with a thin coat of white lead, put on the soft cement, 
about J an inch thick, and then screw and hammer it up 
as hard as the bolts will bear safely. Get a few shav- 
ings on a sheet-iron plate, set them on fire, and hold 
them to tho patch a few minutes until it becomes warm, 
then commence to tighten the nuts again as hard as they 
will bear with safety, as they will yield considerably 
after heating. This makes a substantial joint, that will 
neither sweat nor leak. Then gather and scrape up all 
the cement you can, outside and inside, roll it up in a 
ball, and put in a keg of water to keep it moist, and it 
will be ready for use at all times. This cement is said 
to be first-rate for bedding down large pillar blocks, 
bed plates, &c. It is said to be the best and cheapest 
material that can be used for making stationary joints, 
and is generally used at sea. I am also told by the 
same engineer, that at San Francisco, boilers have 
been made to stand first-rate with this soft cement. It 
is necessary to have some of this material when out at 
sea, in case the boilers should give out from rupturing, 
burning, or any other c^nee. 



Joints. 169 



SANCUM. 



Sancum is made of brimstone dissolved over the fire 
in a ladle or pan, and filled in with clean cast iron 
borings, and stirred to mix the borings through and 
through the same, until it becomes too stiff for stirring, 
then pour it out into thin cakes, and let it cool, and it 
will be ready for immediate use. It is used to fill up 
holes in defective castings; it is also used to fill small 
holes in cylinders that are too small to get inside 
to patch. This hard cement is put in in the following 
manner : take a piece of sancum large enough to fill the 
hole, and put it on the top of the same, and hold a dark 
red hot iron on the top till the brimstone begins to melt, 
and then rub it over it until it fills the hole. This kind 
of cement is often used, and ansv^ers very well. 

16 



SLIDE VALVES, CAMS, &C. 



SLIDE VALVE, CUT-OFF AND SEAT, 

The slide valre cam and valve are laid out on a dif- 
ferent principle from the eccentric or full stroke cam 
and valve. On page 142 you have a side view of a 
cylinder and side pipe with a cut-off slide valve and seat* 
It cuts off at three-fourths of the stroke. I will ex- 
plain what is meant by cutting off the steam. The 
cylinder has four feet stroke, and the steam fills the 
cylinder, whilst the piston travels three feet, and it is 
immediately shut off by closing the valve whilst run- 
ning the other fourth. The object of cutting off the 
steam is to gain additional power by the extra expansion 
of steam, whilst at the same time the escape steam passes 
off much easier, and, on this account, the engine will 
run more freely than those engines working full stroke, 
especially when cramped in letting out the escape steam, 
which is said sometimes to produce a reaction on the 
piston head, and causes the engine to labor and drag 
heavily. This cam is laid out so that when the piston 
has traveled three feet the valve closes the opening with 
equal lap on each side, as you will see in the draft, valve 
B, whilst the valve at the other end of the eeat allows a 



Sltde Yalveb, Oam^j &c. 171 

full opening out into the exhaust until the piston has run 
nearly the whole length of the stroke, and the valve 
stands still whilst on the cut-off point, keeping the open- 
ing closed until the crank is about coming over the dead 
centre, and then the valve opens and lets the steam into 
the other end of the cylinder, and cuts off on each end 
time about. 

This is the most powerful cam that has ever been used, 
and it is the only one that cuts off the steam at any 
point you please, and at the same time gives a full ex- 
haust nearly all the time. I recollect an engine that 
worked a long time using an eccentric cam, and gave 
entire satisfaction. Another party bought it, and it 
was guaranteed to drive a certain amount of work, but 
it would not do it satisfactorily. I then tried a longer 
valve, to cut off more steam, but it did not answer. 
Then I put in the regular slide valve cut-off cam, to 
work in a square cam yoke, and altered the valve to a 
regular cut-off valve, similar to that in the draft on 
page 142, slide valve B, and made some few other alter- 
ations. It then gave entire satisfaction, and, it was 
said, took less fuel and less water. 

I believe there are a great many medium-sized engines 
having eccentric cams, that might truly be called steam 
wasters, working almost full stroke. I believe, in many 
instances, if they were thrown out and the old slide valve 
cam used in their place, there would be a saving of about 
20 to 25 per cent, of steam and fuel. 

The only plan of cutting off steam correctly with an 
eccentric cam, and at the same time giving a full exhaust 
all the time, is to use two cams and valves, as formerly 
used on locomotives, the lower valve being a full stroke 



172 The Phactioal Engineer. 

valve and the upper valve an independent cut-oif. By 
shifting the cam that works the upper valve, you can 
cut off at any point you please, and by setting the cam 
that works the cut-off valve square up, the same as the 
full- stroke cam, the cdms being the same throw, 
they keep time one with the other, and work together, 
and both cams and valves set in this way work full 
stroke ; and then by turning the outside cam one-fourth 
round or at right angles with the other cam, you 
cut off at one-half stroke; putting it only one-eighth 
round, you cut off at three fourths; and putting it 
three-fourths round, you cut off at one-fourth, &c. 
It is only when the two cams are set together that 
the valves work full, and the more one cam is set ahead 
of the other the closer you cut off the steam. 

I knew an instance of an engine being repaired which 
had one of these slide valve cams working in a square 
yoke. A general repairing had been given it, and a 
round cam put in the same yoke. After using it a short 
time, it was found impossible to keep up steam; the 
round was then taken out and a slide valve cam, similar 
to the former, put in its place. This answered the pur- 
pose much better. 

The slide valve cam is made to give two unequal mo- 
tions; one gives more throw than th? other, which 
accounts for the lean and full side. The first movement 
of the cam always closes the valve. This rule holds 
good on all cams, whether for slide, puppet, or any other 
kind of valves. 

The second motion opens the valve and lets the steam 
into the engine. You will see a } slide valve cam with 
a lean and full side (it is a f cam), No. 8, on page 172, 



3/^ Cojnv ^ 



comers. ' 



U^J 



/\ 3/^ ^%^_^ / 











$hdf^ Valve cam sh//r/j confers. t?lcdeyrf/K^Jwnjy?jf.rrclco7vier^. 





S l.i fl e Vet I ve cairt 

Stroll 



SUciel'alvefain Tyaiind corners. 




Ihur poLvts on and four 






Slide Valves, Cams, &c. 178 

marked L on the lean side and F on the full side. This 
cam is laid out to work the slide valve B, which is laid 
down in the draft on page 142. The lean side of these 
cams goes foremost and runs the same way the engine 
runs. If the engine was one that was intended to run 
backward, that is, the top of the fly or water wheel 
running off from the cylinder, then the lean side of the 
cam would require to be turned round and face the other 
way. If the full side of the cam is put foremost, the 
valve, instead of standing still, as it should, on the cut- 
off point, as soon as the steam is let into the cylinder, 
for the purpose of retaining the same for expansion, un- 
til the piston travels the other fourth, it opens the port, 
and suffers the steam that should be retained for expan- 
sion to escape before its time, and the other end of the 
c} Under Avill be closed as much too soon, producing a 
strong reaction on the piston head and causing the en- 
gine to labor. By so doing jou lose the expansion of 
steam as soon as it is cut off, Ayhereas, if the lean side 
were foremost, the valve would stop as soon as over the 
opening, and by so doing it would still retain the steam 
in the cylinder until the piston had run the whole length, 
and then you would have the benefit of the expansion. 
When the sides of the puppet valve cams are equal from 
the centre, it makes no difference which side of them goes 
foremost, provided the bolt holes are not cast in, and if 
they are, you will have to set them to suit the holes. 
And the same with the exhaust or full stroke cams in 
general, with but one exception, as you will see in plate 
on page 172, cam 10, which has a sharp point for back- 
ing quick, whilst the same cam has the other corner 
rounded off to run more smoothly, as this side is seldom 



174 The Pkaotical Eis^ginber. 

used. It would be better on all cams to have all the 
corners made round. The advantage of the sharp over 
the round is so little that it is of no real benefit, whilst 
the round corner cam^ works much smoother than the 
sharp: 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF CAMS. 

Cut-oiF puppet valve cams have four points, giving a 
double motion, the second motion to raise the levers, and 
the first to let them fall. 

The full stroke puppet valve cam has but one motion, 
but it is not a continual go-ahead motion, as an eccentric 
cam. It gives the full movement gradually, and then 
the lever stands still until the nose of the cam has passed 
the outer circle, which holds the lever up with a full 
opening for a considerable distance of the stroke. 

The slide valve cam has four points with a double mo- 
tion and unequal sides, which is required for the reason 
that the first movement of the cam is equal to the width 
of one of the letting-on openings and the lap of the 
valve on the outside of the opening, after the valve has 
had a full opening, and the steam let into the cylinder. 
The first motion of the cam closes the opening, with an 
equal lap of the valve on each side, and the valve stands 
still on this point until the crank is about ready to come 
over the centre. Then the second throw of the cam is 
equal to the distance from the end of the valve to the 
inner edge of the letting on opening, always making the 
diflference equal to the difi*erence from the inside of each 
letting-on opening in the side pipe, and each end of the 
valve B, as it now stands on the seat, which is the width 



Slidb Valves, Cams, (fee. 175 

of the opening, with the outside lap less for the end of 
the valve marked B than the other end marked 0. 

There is another six-pointed slide valve cam which 
gives a treble motion, and was used in the early days of 
steamboating. There were two different steamers using 
them. I was employed to make new patterns for each^ 
with four points, when at our shop in Louisville, Ken» 
tucky. They did not like the ones ^ey had. 



ECCENTRIC CAMS. 

The eccentric cam is always a full stroke cam, which 
gives a constant motion to the cam yoke* It is never 
at rest, as other cams are^ for the reason that, although 
the cam itself is a true circle, yet it has no true circle 
from the centre of the shaft, neither on the nose, heel or 
sides of the cams, as the puppet valve cut-off cam^ and 
also slide valve cams have. The puppet exhaust has on 
the nose and heel only, but not on the sides. 

The eccentric cam being round never opens as 
quickly as those cams which work in a square cam 
frame, and, on this account, in letting on and off the 
steam to the cylinder, it is more or less wire drawn. 

It is a universal custom in the east to use the eccen- 
tric cam' on marine and stationary engines. The mode 
of cutting off the steam with these full stroke cams is 
by having crooked lifters, one arm drooping down from 
the other at an angle, say of 46 degrc?\3 more or less, 
owing to the amount of steam you wish to cut off. 



176 Thb Practical Exginser. 



ROLLING MILL CUT-OFF AND FULL STROKE 

CAMS, 

The rolling mill cam that I allude to is the one that 
goes on the cross shafts under the levers, and -which is 
worked by bevel gearing two to one, putting the large 
bevel wheel on the main shaft. In this case, the cutting 
oflFis done by making a narrow nose on. the point of the 
cam, all taken off the lower side. 

These full stroke cams are parallel and have flat sides, 
the nose of the cam is a true circle from the centre to 
the circumference, excepting the outside points, which 
are rounded slightly, to enable them to work more 
smoothly than they would on the sharp corners. 



WRIST OR CRANK MOTION. 

Wrist or crank motion is the same thing, and gives 
the same motion as the eccentric cam. It works full 
stroke, and if there is any steam required to be cut off 
it must be done bv scivino; an extra len£!!;th to the valve 
covering the open ngs, owing to the quantity of steam 
to be cut off. 



LENGTH OF FULL STROKE AND CUT-OFF SLIDE 

VALVIS. 

The length of the slide valve for a long stroke engine 
and slow motion is generally nuule as follows : suppose 
the letting-on openings to be If inches wide, the bearing 



Slide Valves, Cjims, ko, 177 

on the end of the valve should be at least 2 or 2J inches 
wide, lapping |^ or J inch over the openings inside and 
outside. And when the valve is standing on this point 
the exhaust opening under the valve should be about 
one-sixteenth of an inch open, so that when the valve 
opens to receive the steam the exhaust will be open equal 
to the lap of the valve, whether J or J in addition to the 
extra one-sixteenth, in advance of the receiving opening 
to let on steam ; so that there may be no reaction on the 
piston head on account of having to force the steam out 
of the cylinder, as is often the case, especially if che 
openings are very small. 



SLIDE VALVE CAMS WITH EQUAL SIDES. 

Some slide valve engines have been worked with full 
stroke valves. Such valves would require the cams to 
have equal sides, and the result would be, the moment 
you cut off the steam you close the exhaust opening, as 
the valve has say J lap on each side of the opening, 
and the moment you close the letting-on opening by 
cutting off, you also close the other opening and the 
exhaust before the time, and this chokes the escapement 
and causes the engine to labor very hard on account of 
the.reaction of the remaining escape steam, &c. 

The valve and scat should be made the same as the 
one in the side view draft of the cylinder and side pipe, 
on page 142, which, after closing the opening, stands 
still with equal lap on each side of the opening, until 
the crank is about to come over ihe centre, leaving all 
the while a full exhaust opening, as you will see in the 



ITS The Practical Engixesr. 

draft, valve B. I have frequently made the valves so 
as to allow but half an opening in the exhaust when the 
valve is standing still on the cut-off point, but I consider 
the full exhaust better when the valve is on the cut-off 
pointy as it gives a freer exhaust by letting out the escape 
steam a shade sooner than the valve with the half open- 
ing in the exhaust when the valve B is standing on the 
cut-off point, as you will see in the draft on page 142. 
A regular full stroke valve, when over the openings, has 
seldom more than ^ inch lap, and sometimes only one- 
sixteenth of an inch, and as soon as the valve commen- 
ces to open the exhaust port ought to be open about J 
of an inch for the pm*pose of letting the escape steam 
pass off more freely than it would otherwise do, if longer 
detained. 

For slow running engines the steam ought not to be 
let on until the crank has come over the centre and the 
shoving head about to commence moving on the slides. 
If let on any sooner, it is calculated to rack the engine 
fore and aft and destroy the machinery ; for all the steam 
you can give an engine on the dead centre will not bring 
it over. N. B. I have seen engines brought off the dead 
centre by giving them steam, but this was owing to a lop 
or heavy sided fly wheel. 

For fast running engines, such as locomotives used for 
drawing freight trains, the valve has about one-sixteenth 
of an inch lead when the engine is on the centre, and the 
exhaust about three-sixteenths of an inch ; and for fast 
running passenger trains the valve has from three-six- 
teenths to J inch lead, and the exhaust would require from 
f to J inch lead. The reason for giving the fast running 
engines more lead than the slow running ones, or giving 



Pa($e..90. 




Slide Valves^, Cams, 4c. 179 

them the steam before coming over the centre, is for the 
purpose of cushioning the engine, or to fill what is some- 
times called the dunnage space, which means the clearance 
between the piston head and the two cylinder heads, 
and also at the same time filling the opening in the side 
pipe between the end of the slide valve and the end of 
the cylinder, so that the steam will act immediately on 
the piston head as soon as it begins to move on the slides, 
and by thus giving the steam before coming over the 
centre it prevents the back lashing that would otherwise 
be caused by slackness in the pitman boxes, &c. And 
it answers better on this account. If the fast running 
engines were not to receive their steam sooner than the 
large slow running engines, the piston head would have 
moved a considerable distance before the steam would 
act on it. 

When engines have lead in the valve letting on the 
steam a little before the engine comes over the centre, 
it always suits better for locomotives or any other double 
engines than it would for single engines, for this reason : 
the one engine helps the other over the centre, whereas 
if the single engine was at the end of the slide, and the 
steam let on before coming over, the reaction of the 
steam when the engine was standing would require some 
hard pulling to bring it over the centre, unless the steam 
was shut off; but when the engine is running at its full 
speed, it barely fills the vacant room without having any 
time for reaction. 

Doctor engines running very slow require to work a 
full stroke valve. They ought to receive the steam as 
soon as the shoving head begins to move on the slides ; 
the valve, when the engine is on the dead centre, ought 



180 The Practical Enginbbh. 

to coTer all the openings hot having more than one- 
sixteenth or one-thirty second of an inch lap over each 
opening and J of an inch lead in the exhaust. 

Just in proportion to the amount of steam you cut off 
from the engine, you require a heavier fly wheel to bring 
the engine over the dead centre. And the same with 
the speed of an engine. In proportion as you run it 
slow, you will require to enlarge the diameter and weight 
of the fly wheel rim. 



HOW TO LAY OUT A SLIDE VALVE CAM. 

(See side view of cylinder on page 142.) First lay 
out the eye of the cam ; next allow a sufficiency of width 
outside of this, to bolt on to the cam flange, and at the 
same time allow enough to keep the cam yoke clear of 
the cam flange on the shaft. Then get the distance from 
the end of the valve B to the back of the opening, as it 
stands on the draft, which will always be equal to the 
width of the opening, including the lap of the valve on 
the outside of the same, which is sometimes J or J of an 
inch, according to the size of the valve. Then draw 
another circle outside of the heel of the cam for the first 
movement, equal to the width of the opening and one 
outside lap included. See valve B, in the draft, page 142. 

To get the second movement, take the distance from 
the other end of the valve to the back of the other let- 
ting-on opening, as laid down in the draft, page 142. 
The valve laid down in the draft at the end B requires 
three-sixteenths of an inch for the first movement and 
five-sixteenths for the second. After getting these two 



Ea^pr/ndi/i^ Oz/ns. 




rJ\os£ €fCn?n ,clos£d. 



.^"bse of Ca/tt op/'ued 




A'osr. roniracted. 



jyhse £,xpanded. 




^^^// of Cam ffm/ofCarr^ 



jj? ct wri "tuf - ^o7':r^. ?/>'/ /7y vi 



Slide Valves, Cajms, &c. 181 

circles on the outer circle, lay off the width of the nose 
to any size you please. If you wish to cut off at one- 
half stroke, the cam will be nearly sharp on the point; 
if you wish to cut off at f , it will be about three or four 
inches wide on the nose. After the cam has been laid 
out, draw a line across the centre and step it off, as you 
see in draft of cams on pages 172 and 182, and if you 
find it cuts off too slow or too fast, you can increase or 
diminish the width of the nose of the cam., until you get 
it as you want it. 



EXPANDING CAMS. 

The expanding cam is made in four pieces ; each piece 
is about one and a half inches thick, making the thick- 
ness of the cam three inches. It parts up and down in 
the middle on one side, and at right angles on the 
opposite, for the purpose of widening and contracting 
them on the nose, as far as the oblong holes will admit, as 
you will see in the draft of expanding cams on page 186. 
C, H and I are cams contracted, whilst J, K, L are 
expanded. You will also see an edge view of three cams 
in the same plate, marked A, B, C, D, E and F. If 
ever there was a time in which we would be justifiable in 
using thes6 cams, it was in the early days of steamboat- 
ing, when wood was universally used for fuel, and some- 
times you would get it dry as powder, and at other times 
almost as green as grass, so that the amount of steam 
made would differ in proportion to the quality of the 
fuel. These cams never came into general use, and 
there is less call for them now than formerly, as coal is 
16 



182 The Pkaciical Ej^amEEE. 

almost universally used, and if of a good quality, always 
produces nearly about the same amount of steam. 

When using the expanding cam the two inside pieces 
were made stationary on the shaft, and when the cams 
were to be made wider or narrower, it was done by shift- 
ing the outside pieces of the cam. 



SETTING T.HE FULL STROKE CAM. 

These cams are made in two pieces, pivoting up and 
down straight through the centre ; thus when the engine 
is on the after dead centre the cam stands straight up, 
and square up from the top of the pillar block when 
the block stands level with the boat fore and aft, or in 
other words, stands parallel with the shear plank. 

The pillar blocks now in use differ materially from 
those formerly used. They are not put down parallel 
with the shear plank, but are laid on an inclined plane 
in a line with the cylinder and the slides. This is 
owing to our cylinder timbers being quite differently 
made from those of former years. 

Our cylinder timbers now are skeleton timbers, and 
they run the whole length on an incline. Those in use 
many years ago, were filled up of different pieces of 
timbers, solid, while the cylinder timbers generally in 
this case run on an incline up to the pillar block, and 
then this part of the timber was level or parallel with 
the shear plank, and the pillar block would be parallel 
with the same. In this case, as we have already de- 
scribed, the centre of the cam would then stand plumb 
up, or square up from the face of the pillar block, and 



Ta^e.eT 



Full sfjvke^ 




e-n. off MuU strode cams 



J^lU^ti^ i?2/ JoArc,. /fct/^ay:^'-. 



Slide Valves, Gams, &c. 183 

tlie centre passing through each half of the cam stands 
upright and parallel with one or both faces of the cam 
frame, as may be seen in the full stroke cam and plate, 
page 184, which has a cut-off cam mostly within the same. 

In setting the full stroke cam on our engines at 
the present day, where the cylinder timber is on the in- 
cline, and straight on the top the whole length of the 
timbers, the centre of the cam is still, as above de- 
scribed, parallel with one or both faces of the cam 
frame, and of course the centre of the cam is square up 
from the face of the pillar blocks, the same as the one 
first mentioned, where the pillar blocks were level or 
parallel with the shear plank. There is, however, this 
difference. On the plan which prevailed in early years, 
the pillar blocks being parallel with the shear plank, in 
this case, the faces of each cam would also be plumb, or 
in other words, both faces of the cam frame and the 
centre of the cam would be square up from the centre 
of the pillar block ; but the faces of the latter, being on 
an equal inclination with that of the cylinder timbers 
(as they are now used), the centre line through the ex- 
haust cam hangs as much over the plumb as the face of 
the pillar block in the same length of cam is below the 
level. 

It should be remarked, that neither the plumb nor 
the level is used on water crafts, but the author has 
made use of them, in this treatise, in order that he may 
be the more easily understood, If the top of the pillar 
block is level when the boat is in trim, the centre of the 
cam would be found perfectly plumb. To repeat the 
substance of what has been already said in regard to 
the setting the exhaust or full stroke cams, when the 



184 The Practical Engineer. 

engine is on the after dead centre the nose of the 
cam is up, and the centre line through the middle of 
the cam is always found to be square up from the mid- 
dle of the face of the pillar block, and of course the cen- 
tre line through the cam will be parallel to one or 
both faces of the cam frame ; and the easiest manner in 
which these cams can be set is to make the centre 
line through the cam frame parallel, cr at equal dis- 
tances from the face of the cam frame ; thus that frame 
will be equidistant from the centre of the main shaft. 
This rule mil always be found right. It makes no dif- 
ference if the pillar blocks are on a level with the shear 
planks, or on an incline. The principle remains one 
and the same, for horizontal or incline engines. 

After the full stroke cam has been set, it is advisable 
to make a mark both upon the cam and upon the cam 
flange (opposite the first one), upon the shaft ; so that 
if this cam should slip either way whilst in the act of 
setting the cut-off cam, there will be nothing to do but 
bring mark to mark ; and when the cut-off cam is prop- 
erly adjusted it would be well to mark it also, so that in 
case it should at any time slip by reason of the bolts 
becoming slack, or from any other cause, it will be 
much more easily discovered and adjusted, by comparing 
the marks made on the cam with those made upon the 
cam flange, or upon the main shaft. 

It should be well noted, that double arms upon the 
rock shaft which is worked with a full stroke cam for 
backing, and sometimes for going forward, should be 
taken to the boat by the proper persons, and placed on 
the cross shaft, and then the cam-rod made to ship on 
both the upper and lower pin. The arm and rock shaft 






/Utviro'r: 



Q \ 



^ 



<f 



Fa.Je.72. 




i— CIP^ 



nJ.^:— i£ 






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t=i - 



cf^ 



Xiran^ 'Bt/ ^oA^ 'Md^ace^ 



SLii>K Valves, Oamis, kc. 185 

should be marked with a centre punch and the hole 
drilled ; this is the most correct plan of performing this 
part of the work. These arms are sometimes put on 
and drilled before coming to the boat ; others put them 
on as before stated. 

To those who put these arms on the rock shaft in the 
shop instead of placing them on in the boat on both pins 
while the engine is on the dead centre, it will be well to 
say, that they will sometimes require a little raising or 
lowering of the bearer of the cam-rod above or below 
a straight line, as it may require to make the cam-rod 
ship on both pins in the arm. It is to avoid this, and 
also to keep the cam-rod bearers in a straight line, that 
mention has been made of the propriety of not making 
this arm fast in the shop where the engine is construct- 
ed ; but rather having it taken to the boat and there 
set, so that the cam-rod will readily ship on both pins. 
After which the arm should be marked, taken to the 
shop, and drilled and made fast. This may be consid- 
ered the safest and best plan for executing this part of 
the work. 

No. 2 is a draft of an equalizing arm, the object of 
which is to cut off the steam equally at both ends of the 
slides, inasmuch as the common cam has failed to do 
this ; the latter cuts off the steam at the lower centre, 
passing out slower than it comes in at the upper centre. 
The reason of this will be discovered by examining the 
shoving-head, when its centre is in the centre of the slide. 
For instance, suppose the crank to be three feet from 
centre to centre, when the shoving-head is in the centre 
of the slide coming over the dead centre the wrist will 
be about six inches over the centre of the shaft, with a 
IG'^ 



186 The Peactical Engineer. 

plumb, while on the other centre going out it will be 
found six inches behind the time. This is why the nose 
of one cam requires to be considerably wider than that 
of the other; the deficiency must be made up in this 
way.. The cam is partially double and has an off set in 
the cam frame so adjusted as to accommodate the differ- 
ence of the points as the cam passes over, as may be 
seen in plate No. % page 184. 



SETTING THE CUT-OFF CAIVI. 

Where the engine is on the after dead centre, the 
nose of the cam is uppermost ; let the cam then be 
turned until the consecutive circle comes hard up on 
the face of the cam frame and ready to move it the 
moment the wheel begins to move over the centre. The 
ididQ of both the cam frames, full stroke and cut-off, 
will be equidistant from the centre of the main shaft. 

It is w^ell in this place to make especial note that on 
upright or walking-beam engines, the noses of the cams 
stand in an entirely differeiit position to the crank upon 
the main shaft, from what those used on horizontal 
engines do. 

The reason why the centre line through the nose of 
the cut-off cam does not stand perpendicular with the 
nose of the full stroke cam, is because it is a cut-off 
cam, and narrower on the nose, and on this account the 
centre line forms an acute angle, as may be seen de- 
S3ribed on draft, cam No. 4 J and No. 5, page 184. 

The sharper the nose of the cam the greater the 
angle, and the wider the nose of the cut-off cam the 
less will be the angle. (See drafts of different cams.) 



Slide Valves, Cams, &c. 187 



PUPPET VALVE ^CAiVlS. 

The names of the various cams used for the puppet 
valve engine are: Full stroke or D cam, cut-off cam, 
eccentric cam, equalizing cam, and expanding cam. 

To give some idea of the latter cam, it would be well 

to remark that it was in use on board the large steamer 

called the WiUiain ^French, It was built at Jefferson- 

ville, about the year 1820. This cam is of double 

thickness, and tlic object of expanding or widening out 

the nose, was to enable the engine to v/ork off more 

steam than it otherwise could, while in the use of good 

wood or other fuel. When, as is sometimes the case, 

the wood was quite green and of inferior quality, and 

would in consequence generate less steam, they would 

be compelled to draw the cam together at the nose. It 

was made in four pieces, and when expanded from its 

ordinary shape, some parts of the working on the frame 

would only be the one-half thickness of the cam. The 

two inside half thickness of the cam would remain 

stationary and close, while the two outside ones opened 

at the nose ; and just as far as the latter passed beyond 

the former, just so much must be taken off the heel of 

each inside cam. This is very difficult to be understood 

from verbal or written description ; it must be seen to be 

properly comprehended, either in practical operation or 

by model, and then dissecting and laying it down in its 

different parts, as you will see in draft on page 186. 

- his cam will be, no doubt, a novelty to most readers, 
but it was only our purpose in this work to give it a 
passing allusion, to gratify curiosity and stimulate a 



188 The Pkaciical Engineer. 

desire for more knowledge on this complicated ma- 
chiner V. It may lead to important truths in the use of 
steam never before known. 

This cam when contracted and brought to its narrow- 
est working point at the nose, required the two heels of 
the iiiside cams to be cut off as much as the two points 
of the noses of the outside cam extended over the in- 
ner ones. Say, for the sake of illustration, the whole 
cam was three inches in thickness ; then some parts of 
it, while working in the cam frame, would be three 
inches in thickness whilst other parts would be but \\ 
inches thick — one half the thickness of the cam when 
closed together. 



SLIDE VALVE CAMS. 

The names of the various cams used on slide valve 
engines are : Full stroke cam ; eccentric cam ; cut-off 
cam with four points, with one lean and one full side oppo- 
site; cut-off cam with six points, with one lean and one 
full side. 



HOW TO LAY OUT CAMS. 

I believe there are but few engine builders who know 
how to laj out a slide valve cut-off cam and valve. 
I Cams were first made for the western waters, about 
44 years ago, by Stackpole & Whiting, a Boston 
company then carrying on engine building in Pitts- 
burcrh. The motion driven to the valves, before the in- 



Slide Valves, Cams, &c. 189 

troduction of cams, was produced by an arm from the 
shoving-head, or piston rod, when the piston was near 
the end of the stroke — somewhat similar in principle to 
the small pumping engines now in general use. The 
backing was done by hand. I have had charge of a shop 
in Pittsburgh for upward of twenty years, and we gen- 
erally use the lean-sided slide valve cam and valves ; 
and there never has been, in our shop, from the time I 
took charge of it to the present, one of these cams laid 
out except by myself ; nor have I ever shown but to one 
person how to lay out such cams. For the benefit of 
the public, and in order that the idea may not be lost, 
I now publish the mode of laying them out. 

Some have used the full stroke valve to work with a 
cam having equal sides, similar to those used on puppet 
valve engines for cutting ofi"; this is all wrong, because 
almost as soon as you cut off the steam at the one end of 
the cylinder you close the letting on opening at the other 
end, and compress the remaining steam in the cylinder that 
should be allowed to escape, and thus cause the engine 
to labor unnecessarily, by producing a reaction on the 
piston head. 

The rule for ascertaining how much steam the cams 
cut off, is, first, to draw two lines on the face of the 
cam, one straight up through the centre of the nose of 
the cam, and another square across through the centre 
of the eye. Take, for example, the half stroke puppet 
valve cut-off cam (No. 10, on plate B, page 190); there 
you see the half circle stepped off into eight equal parts ; 
and where the half circle is intersected by the two cir- 
cles leading down from the point or points on the nose 
of the cam, marked A and B, the space between A and 



190 The Pkactical E^giiseek. 

B shows the amount of steam let od, -and the steam is 
cut off from the centre line C up to A and B. Or thus : 
the half circle is stepped off into eight parts, and there 
are foui' parts from B and A down to the centre line, or 
where the yalve covers the opening, by moving the 
valve, which is four-eighths, equal to one-half. The same 
rule answers for the lean side slide valve cam. 

Tou will see on page 190, plate B, cams Nos. 7, 10 

and 11, another rule used bv some for findinir the 

amount of steam cut by the cams. Cams 2sos. 7, 10 

and 11 are three cams laid out on this rule, and No. 11 

is laid out on both rules. For example, see cam 10: 

At the point of intersection you draw the line marked 

A ; from this point through the centre of the eye of the 

cam ; and at the opposite point of intersection marked 

B, you draw a line square to the Kne A, which in this 

cam comes to the centre of the eye, owing to its being 

half stroke. (In the three-fourth cam below Ko. 11, 

below the line B, which is also square out from the line 

A. and is considerably out from the centre, this rule will 

not hold good, because the point of intersection is 

thrown farther round, which is owing to this cam having 

a ^vider nose than the other.) Then draw a straight line 

up through the centre of the nose of the cam, and step 

it off into any number of equal parts you please, 8, 16 

or 32, and take the same distance on the short square 

line out to the point of intersection, (see plate B, cam 

ISo, 10, page 190.) This rule holds good in both cases — 

the stepping on the half circle and also on the square 

line A and B. In the half circle there are eight spaces, 

and from A and B to the centre line there are four 

spaces cut off, which is equal to four-eighths or one half. 



Vi stroke Cctm 



Vx xftroke Cam 







Shde ValTZ^Cccrw. Slide Yah^ Cam 



j'Tz ^z/Jo/tn- T'/'jio-y^f- 



'ran^n. :?jy 



Slide Valves, Gams, &€'. 191 

There is one other case where this rule does not apply 
—see cam No. 11. There are eight spaces in the up- 
right line, and about two and a half in the short line B. 
Say we put this into jV on account of the fractional 
part two and a half, which marks j\ off, leaving 
jl on, making it an y| cam by the lines, whereas by 
the half circle it would be a y| or f cam. 

I hare mentioned these two rules to satisfy the curios- 
ity of those who are anxious to knoYf all about the dif- 
ferent modes of laying out cams, &c., as well as for the 
benefit of young beginners, who wish to understand 
laying out and experimenting on the same, and for want 
of sufficient practice and training have not yet full con- 
fidence in their own abilities. I would recommend the 
plan of laying out and making small cams, and also 
frames of thick gasket paper, or thin pine boards, and 
work the cam in the yoke, and in this way you can ex- 
periment until you understand the principle of laying 
out and working the cams completely. 

I hinted in my former book that it was possible I 
might say somxC thing more on this subject, which I could 
have done then as well as now, but did not see proper to 
do so. I have now said more than I intended to 
and could say more, but will let this suffice for the pre- 
sent. What I have said will throw more lig-ht on the 
subject of cams than the former book, and I believe will 
more than come up to the expectations of many who 
may peruse the work. It is possible that I may say 
something more on this subject at a future period. 

There is almost an endless variety of ways for making 
and shaping cams. 

No. 1, plate A, is a view of a cut-off cam, for a slide 



192 The Practical Encineer. 

ralve engine, rdth sharp corners and. sharp nose, cutting 
off at J stroke. This cam differs from the puppet valve 
cam, having its sides unequal, so as to give the motion 
to the valve that is requisite. A is the lean side of this 
cam ; this side goes foremost, to work the cam frame. 
B is the full side of the cam. Some engineers, in setting 
these cams, have put the full side foremost, and said 
they worked very well, stating that they did not see that 
it made any difference which side of the cam went fore- 
most. Such engineers have yet to learn how to set a 
slide valve cam. 

N. B. — In setting the full side of the cam foremost, 
B, you lose the expansion of the steam ; for with the full 
side B foremost, you begin to exhaust the moment you 
cut off. 

No. 2, plate 3, is another slide valve cut-off cam, with 
sharp corners, having a wider nose than No. 1, and of 
course, lets on more steam. While this cam travels 
from A to B, the receiving opening to the cylinder is 
closed, the steam is cut off and the valve is stationary; 
because the distance is equal from centre to circumfer- 
ence. Just the same with the nose of the cam; the 
valve remains stationary from C to D ; the distance also 
is equal from E to F, and from H to G. 

No. 3 is another slide valve cam with sharp corners, 
having a wider nose than No. 2, and of course letting 
on more steam than No. 2. 

No. 4 is a slide valve cam, having round corners. 
These corners are cut off, and from the same centres 
that these corners are laid off by, you draw the curves 
for the balance of the cam, and by this means the cam 
is made to fill the cam frame all round. 



Slide Valves, Cams, &c. 193 

No. 5 is a slide valve cam, similar to No. 4, only hav- 
ing a narrower nose, and of course, cuts the steam off 
quicker than No. 4. 

No. 6 is another sUde valve cam, having round cor- 
ners, and narrower on the nose than No. 5, and cuts off 
steam quicker. 

No. 7 is a full stroke D cam, and such as is generally 
used on puppet valve engines for backing. This cam 
has two sharp corners, and the frame stands still while 
the cam travels from H to I, and holds the lever up 
more than one half the time with a full opening from the 
time the lever commences to rise until it is closed. (The 
levers are down and the valves are closed on our hori- 
zontal engines when the cam is in the position you now 
see it.) The cam in this position gives a motion from 
the centre A, eacl^ way equal, because the distance from 
A to E is equal to the distance of the centre curve C, 
between G and E, and the motion is stationary until the 
cam has passed from I to the point H, and then the 
curve begins to fall back to the heel of the cam J, at 
the point nearly opposite I, where the distance is again 
equal from the centre to the circumference till it reaches 
the point K. 

No. 8 is another full stroke D cam, Avith round corners, 
and such as is often used on puppet valve engines on 
steamers, for backing. 

No. 9 is a puppet valve cut-off cam, having both its 
sides equal. This cam has sharp corners, and while it 
travels from A to B the steam is cut off, and when trav- 
eling from B to it receives a full opening and remains 
full while traveling from C to D, because from C to D 
the distance is equal from centre to circumference. 

n 



194 The Practical Ekgikeer. 

No. 10 is a full stroke puppet valve cam, used on 
some of our steamers for backiug. This cam has but 
one sharp corner, and this sharp corner is used for back- 
ing. The object of having this corner on is for backing 
quick, and the object of having the other corner off, is 
that the cam works more smooth and easy on a round 
point than it does on a sharp one. By request vre had 
one of these cams made for the Gren. Broivn^ a Louis- 
ville boat, about the year 1839, which generally run 
from Louisville to New Orleans, and which was said to 
answer the purpose very well. This same boat exploded 
her boiler about one year after this and killed about 40 
persons. She was a four boiler boat, and was again re» 
fitted and put in good running order at Louisville. 

No. 11 is a puppet valve cut-off cam with round 
points, and also with sharp corners — the one drawn on 
the top of the other for the express purpose of showing 
that there is little or no difference between their motion 
in the raising of the valves. A great many ignorant 
engineers, who know very little more about the laying 
out of cams than the cams know about them, are con- 
tinually calling for the sharp corners, saying, ''we want 
something to open quick," &c. Now, we say, the corner 
has nothing to do with the commencement of the open- 
ing in any cam whatever, whether slide or puppet valve. 
Take the cut-off cam No. 11, for example, if you please, 
and you will see the first motion of the cam from the 
heel T to C; the cam frame then remains stationary 
while the cam travels from point C to E, because the 
distance is equal fmm centre to circumference. Now, 
at point C you sec the cam with the corner on, and also 
with the corner off; or you may take a view of the other 






C4fm TS. 







FtillstrokeUccifft^roundcorHe^rs, ^^s^t^T off Ctxm^ 




/W % S parts 07V ;(>po ciaM off. 




Si.x jjoHs orv and ;zWt? civft^ Six pdHs orv a,^ld ThmD \u o/^ 

, ^ J )7'ixivn> l}tf Jbhriy WaMa^e^ I 



Slide Valves, Cams, &c. 195 

point, G, if you please, at the nose of the cam, where the 
principle is the very same, and you will at once see that 
there is but little difference in either the shape or motion 
of the cam, but there is a material difference in the 
Yforking of them. The cam with the round corners 
works more smooth and easy than the cam with sharp 
corners. The sharp cornered cam can only be used on 
board of steamboats or some large engine used for other 
purposes, where the motion is slow ; and even then they 
make a great noise, like beating with a large trip ham- 
mer. The reason why sharp cornered cams cannot be 
used on small engines or locomotives running very fast, 
is because you cannot make anything that has a sharp 
corner work well ; the nearer round the more smooth and 
easy it will work. 

We are not now to be understood as upholding eccen- 
tric cams as the best that could be used for our steamers, 
although on the eastern steamers they are generally 
used, where the steamers are much larger than ours and 
draw from 15 to 22 feet of water, with a full load. Now, 
for example, suppose the cam No. 11 to give 4 inches 
throw, and suppose this 4 inches throw to raise the lever 
one inch at the valve, now in rounding the corner of 
this cam you take a quarter of an inch off the points G 
and K at each corner of the nose ; now this quarter of 
an inch of corner taken off, is but j^^ of 4 inches, or 
of the throw of the cam and the raising of the lever. 
Again, suppose the lever to raise one inch at the valve 
stem, this is but one-fourth of the throw of the cam, and 
makes it but ^^ part of an inch difference in the raise 
of the lever, and this is not at the point where the 
engine takes the steam, as a great many suppose who 



196 The Practical Engineeb- 

speak without thinking. Whatever is done or said, 
should be done understandingly and knowingly, and not 
at random. But now to the point again. 

The cam No. 11, with one-fourth of an inch of the 
corner off for making it round, reduces the raise of the 
valve but ^^ part of an inch, and that not as the en- 
gine takes the steam, but at the point G, when the valve 
is about its highest point. Now let us look at this 
again; it is only a point, G, which is gradually cut off 
from F to G, and then runs out from G to H. Now 
this point G is no sooner reached than passed, and in 
our estimation is a mere matter of moonshine ; and what 
we have been trying to impress on your minds is, that 
our cut-off and exhaust cams would work much better 
and smoother with the corners off. We agree with John 
Currey, engine builder, Louisville, Ky. (having been 
his foreman for some time), in this respect, and we would 
say for the information of those interested, that almost 
any one knowing anything about cams, may lay out a 
cam with sharp corners, but it is not every one that can 
lay out a cam with the corners off; this requires more 
skill and is more difficult to do than the one with sharp 
corners, as will be seen laid down in the puppet valve 
cut-off cam. No. 11 ; the sharp cornered cam is first laid 
out and then the four centres are got, and the four 
corners 0, K, G and C are cut off, and from these four 
small centres you strike a smaller circle on the outside 
of the other lines, already struck from the sharp corners, 
which accounts for the double lines; or in other words, 
you have a sharp cornered cam and a round cornered 
cam, one drawn on the top of the other, and you will 
observe that they are as near alike as possible, and not 



Slide Valves, Cams, &o. 197 

that difference that would appear to those who have not 
examined the matter. But still we wish you to remem- 
ber that the round cornered cam is the smoothest and 
best working cam. 

When I w^as foreman for Benton & Walker, New Al- 
bany, Ind., we had on hands building a large number of 
engines for steamers, for running on the lower trade, 
and it was quite a common thing in those days for cap- 
tains to show off, w^hile at the same time they fancied 
they would get a better job by having their engineer 
dictate how such and such parts of the work should be 
done. These men were often employed some months 
before the boat was ready for running, at ^100 
per month, merely for the purpose of walking round 
and occasionally seeing to matters. While fitting out 
the engine for one of these boats — ^a five boiler boat — we 
proposed to the engineer to make his cam with round 
corners, to which he would not listen, but said hastily, 
''0 no, no; I want something to open quick! Give 
me something to open quick!" as if the round corner 
cam would not answer at all. We made mention of the 
circumstance to Mr. Dally, formerly engineer of the 
old Red Rover ^ an eight boiler boat built at Pittsburgh 
some eighteen years ago, and who at this time was get- 
ting another larger boat at New Albany, Ind., called the 
John RandplfJi^ the engine having been built at Loui^ 
ville, Ky., by John Currey; and knowing Mr. Gurrey's 
opinion on this subject, we stated to Mr. Dally that we 
wanted the engineer to have his corners off, but that he 
would not listen to us, believing the cam with the sharp 
corners to be the host. But when Mr. Dally mentioned 
the matter, and reasoned with him, and fairly hooted at 



198 The Practical Engineer. 

tlie idea, he consented at once to have tliem made with 
round corners. This same engineer was considered one 
of the very best of his day, and we believe that he could 
run an engine as well as any man, and yet he had to 
come to us while living at Louisville, to show him how 
to weigh steam, at the time so miany explosions of our 
boats occurred, among them the 3Ioselle and others. 
This was about the period when the inspection of boilers 
commenced, and he wished to know how to weigh steam, 
that he might be a match for the inspectors, who were 
about to examine his boilers, and also to know the 
amount of steam he was carrying. 

No. 12 is a puppet valve cut-off cam, having sharp 
corners, with a wider nose than No, 11, and of course 
lets on more steam. See page 195. 



rv 




^H^^^ 



PUMPS. 



HORIZONTAL FORCE PUMPS. 

The principle of force pumps is the same^ whether 
horizontal or upright. The valves and the chambers 
are substantially the same thing, the only difference 
being that one has a horizontal barrel for the plunger 
to work in, while the other works in an upright barrel. 
This may be assigned as the reason why one is called 
horizontal and the other upright. The main object to 
be attained in using the horizontal force pumps, is the 
saving of labor and material to t4e builder of engines. 
It often, however, increases the labor of the engineer to 
keep them in order* The horizontal pump dispenses 
with the use of the pump stands and caps, the pendu- 
lum and pendulum shaft, the connecting link between 
the shoving-head and the pendulum, and the connecting 
rod from- the arm to the plunger. This is. no doubt the 
object of using them in general. In some places there 
may not be room for an upright force pump, in which 
case it becomes indispensably necessary to use the hor- 
izontal pump in its stead. The latter suits better fo^- 
short stroke engines than they do for long ones, because 
they are more easily kept in line. When the brass in t}\(\ 



20O The Practical EKaiNEEK. 

shoving-jaws wears and settles down, it throws the end 
of the plunger hard upon the barrel of the force pump, 
and the end of the plunger begins to leak badly, by 
reason of this uneven wear ; and the longer the plunger 
the , worse it is in this respect. Three different times 
has the author known a horizontal plunger to be turned 
down on this account, when a larger one had afterward 
to be put in its place. More engines than one have 
had their plunger worn flat upon the point on account 
of the shoving-head sinking down on the slides by 
wearing. It is worthy to remark in this place, that 
when these pumps are put in line their centres should 
not be parallel at both ends with the centres of the cyl- 
inder. The centre of the line should be in the centre 
of the stuffing box, and on the other end the plunger 
ought barely to clear the bottom of the pump barrel, 
giving all the clearance on the top of the plunger. 
Then, when the jaws settle down on the slides by wear- 
ing, the end of the plunger will be found to run twice as 
long as it would otherwise do, before it rubs the top off 
the pump barrel, owing to the clearance all being on 
the top at the far end of the pump. 



UPRIGHT FORCE PUMP. 

Upright force pumps, in a general way, are easier to 
keep in order than horizontal ones; and usually, if 
put up true at first, and if on a good foundation, they 
will need no more lining while the engine lasts. Not 
so with the horizontal, it is continually getting out of 
line. Th3 pump itself is stationary, but it is the plunger 



Pumps. 201 

to which we allude, owing to the shoving-head sinking 
on the slide, caused by the wear of the brasses in the 
shoving-head jaws, without taking up the slack. If the 
brasses in the shoving-head were kept up by set screws 
this need not be the case, but this is seldom done. 



UPRIGHT FORCE PUMPS WITH BORED 
CHAMBERS- 

This pump was considerably used in the earlier years 
of steam. It is the same in principle with the upright 
pump last treated of, only dijffering in this, that instead 
of using a plunger, they use a piston head packed with 
hemp ; and the two valves, one on each side of the pump 
barrel, are at the foot of the pump — and on this ac- 
count are sometimes called foot valves. 



RULES HOW TO FIND THE STROKE OF A 
PLUNGER BY FIGURES. 

To find the stroke of a plunger by figures, it is ne- 
cessary to multiply the stroke of the engine by the 
length of the pump-arm, and divide by the length of 
the pendulum from centre to centre, and the product 
will be the stroke of the plunger. 

Example. — You want to find the number of inches 
throw of a plunger. The engine is 5 feet stroke, the 
pendulum is 72 inches long, and the pump-arm is 16 
inches from centre to centre. What number of inches 
stroke will the plunger have ? 



202 The Practical Engineee. 

60 inches stroke of engine. 
16 inches length of pump-arm, 

360 
60 



Pendulum 72 inches) 960 (13J inches stroke of plunger, 

72 



240 
216 



I 24 [ 1 
24 

I 72 I 3 
Persons not being acquainted with the above rule, 
generally took a strip the length of the pendulum, and 
the pump arms nailed across each other, and moved the 
long strip the length of the stroke of the engine, and in 
this way got the stroke of the plunger. 



THE TRUE PRINCIPLE TO MAKE A FORCE PUMP. 

Force pumps, having shallow valve chambers, as you 
will see in the force pump C, will work with low steam, 
when they will not work if the steam is high. The object 
of using the bridle D, is to prevent the valve from tip- 
ping over, but when the steam is high it reacts on the 
side of the valve, and also on the top of the valve stem, 
and the pressure sideways on the valve produces such 
an amount of friction on the bridle and guide below, 
that it holds the valve fast, prevents it from falling,. 



Pumps. 203 

and hinders the pump from receiving its regular supply 
of water. Instead of using the bridle it would be bet- 
ter to bore the pump chambers out, and turn the valve 
caps, so that they will fit in the chambers easy, and 
have a large pin cast on the caps, as you will see on the 
draft of a perfect force pump E ; in this pin there is a 
hole drilled out, say one quarter of an inch larger than 
the top valve stem, allowing the valve to raise up one- 
fourth of the diameter. This plan is much better than 
the bridle, as the back reaction from the boiler comes 
on the pin on the valve chamber cap, and not on the 
valve stem, thus leaving the valve at perfect liberty to 
fall free and easy. 



COLD WATER PUMPS. 

There is an endless variety of ways for raising water, 
but there is no plan which can be invented to do it 
which vfill require less power than the w^eight of the 
water to be raised, adding the additional friction of the 
pump to that weight. 

For raising water there have been invented the screw, 
working in an outside barrel ; a variety of patents ; 
rotary pumps of various kinds ; MixwelFs patent double 
chamber p'ump with an air vessel; Warner's patent 
forcing and suction pump, &c. The kind of pumps we 
generally use are the single and double, and the common 
well or lift pump, with two boxes, the upper and the 
lower box. This pump can raise water from 26 to 28 
feet high. (See draft of a pump marked I.) 

It is said that the pressure of the atmosphere will 



204 The Practical Engineer. 

sustain a perpendicular column of water 32 to 34 feet 
in height. 



FORCE PUMPS. 

The barrel of this pump is generally made of cast 
iron, bored out true, in which a piston head works with 
hemp packing, screwed up with a follower, by one nut 
that screws it down, being attached to the pump rod. 
This pump has one valve on the inside of the pump 
chamber, which is the receiving and discharging valve, 
and sits on a cast iron pipe on one side of the pump, 
and is screwed together ; the valve chamber has another 
branch pipe upon it for the purpose of carrying off the 
water as it may be discharged from the pump. 

This pump works as well as any one can, when in 
working order ; but in case anything should be the mat- 
ter with the valve on the inside, the engine would be 
required to stop for the purpose of taking out the 
plunger before access can be had to the valve, to ascer- 
tain what the matter is. (See the draft of pump 
marked H.) 



SUPERIOR FORCE PUMPS. 

The barrel of this pump is similar to the last one 
about which we have been speaking, but the valves are 
both on the outside of the chamber, just as they were 
on the cold water force pumps. The fact of the valves 
being thus placed on the outside is what gives it supe- 



Pumps. 205 

I'lority over any other pump that can be used, because 
access to the valves can be had at any time without 
stopping the engine, and you can get through your ex* 
amination in less than one-fourth the time it could be 
done on former pumps. (See pump on draft marked R.) 



SUPERIOR FORCE PUMP WITH AIR VESSELS. 

This pump is the same in all respects as the above^ 
only with the addition of an air vessel, which is of 
great benefit toward relieving the pump from surging, 
where the water has to be thrown to a considerable 
height above the pump, as it gives elasticity to the non* 
elastic fluid, thereby enabling the pump to w^ork more 
easily and smoothly, while at the same time throwing a 
more regular and uniform stream of water. (See plate S») 

The air vessel B on the left side of the cold water 
pump C, is a late improvement. On locomotive engines 
they frequently use two air vessels close to each valve 
chamber. One object of using them here is, it prevents 
the valves from beating hard on the caps, and also causes 
them to bed easier into their seat, &c. Sometimes the 
valve chamber caps are converted into air vessels; when 
this u the case it will be necessary to have a bridle in 
tlie same to hold the valve to its place. The air vessel 
B should not be far from the receiving valve; if the 
pipe should be very long, it might be from 3 to 5 feet 
off, similar to what you see in the draft B, on page 206. 
I have been informed that there was an experiment of 
this kind tried with a pump that had been in use some 
time before, and did not work very well, but after 
18 



206 The Practical Engineer. 

putting in an another air vessel B, it gave entire satis- 
faction by throwing nearly double the amount of water 
that it did before. The flow of water up into the pipe 
was more easy, regular and uniform, owing to the par- 
tial vacuum in the air vessel* As soon as the plunger 
was up and about to descend, the water would cease 
flowing into the pump, and run up into the air vessel 
until the pressure within and without w^as equal, and 
the moment the plunger would commence to ascend it 
would first draw the water out of the air Vessel and then 
up through the pipe. 

The object of using the two air vessels A and B, is 
to dispense wdth the surging both in receiving and dis- 
charging the Avater. In the air vessel B the air is 
partially exhausted, which causes a more constant flow 
into the pipe; and in the air vessel A the air is com- 
pressed, and produces a more regular discharge than 
would be without, and it is easier on the pump and 
valves in the same proportion that the stream is more 
regular and uniform. 



CAUSE OF FORCE PUMPS AND CHECK VALVES 

SURGING, &c. 

One general cause of force pumps and check valve 
chambers surging, and very often breaking pendulum 
shafts, pendulums, pump arms, and bursting the supply 
pipes that lead from the force pump to the boiler, is 
that the valve chambers are made entirely too small to 
allow room for a valve seat large enough in the opening 
to let water pass through freely. The water being a 
non elastic fluid, the opening should not be cramped. 



Pa^e.llQ. 



s 






i ItWsaerp-'irap witiia-rLair ve&sol 



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VcUy^e 




J 



■^Ive ieot 



_^j7yx>y?^ l>t/ JoPj^rz- I'f^iZZz^'e- 



Pumps. 207 

When foreman at New Albany, I was called upon to 
make a new pendulum shaft for the large double flued 
seven boiler steamer Mississippi, This boat when com- 
ing round a certain bend in the river, could be heard 
barking at a distance of ten miles. She had frequently 
broken her pump shaft. I was asked the cause of its 
surging. I could not say much about it, as I had never 
been on the boat; we talked the matter over about using 
an air vessel, &c., and dropped the subject by making a 
new shaft. We did nothing to remedy the cause of the 
surging. 

The plunger was about 6 inches diameter, and the 
shaft 5 inches. I was asked the cause of breaking so 
many shafts, &c., and after talking awhile about using 
air vessels to relieve the same, put in a heavier shaft. 
When a boat is lying at the Avharf, the water frequently 
gets low in the boilers on account of blowing off steam, 
and sometimes the engine is run very fast, for the ex- 
press purpose of pumping up water into the boilers ; 
sometimes they give the pump a full head of water, and 
the openings in the valve seats are entirely too small. 
All these are the causes of so much breaking. Besides 
in those days the engines were mostly single, and the 
boats had two water wheels and two main shafts, so as 
to ship and unship, and as there were no doctors in use 
then, they Avould frequently have steam at its highest, 
and when forcing the Avater, a non-elastic fluid, into the 
boiler against a head of high steam, and the engine run- 
ning very fast, there is a strong reaction, more especially 
when it is retarded by short elbows in the pipes. This 
will account for surging, breaking, beating out the 
valves, &c, 



20S The Practical Enuineek. 

Any one knows ATliere there is surging in the pump, 
and kicking in the pipes, that something is not right ; 
you are doing violence to the machinery. The general 
fault is, the openings in the valve seats are seldom more 
than one half large enough. This is the reason why 
the valves and seats wear and cut out so fast. The top 
stem beds against the valve cap, and thus bed and ham- 
mer the valves into the seats until the bearing on the 
valve seat is twice as large as it should be. 

To sum up : [the various causes for surging are as fol- 
lows : Too fast or quick motion — high steam — small open- 
ings — short elbows, and unnecessarily large plungers. 
A pump working slow is not likely to surge if every 
thing is right. 

At Shoenberger's rolling m.ill they had five large double 
flued boilers, 24 inch cylinder, 6 feet stroke, working a 
plunger 8 inches diameter, and the engine w^as run very 
fast. I had seen the same pump years before, but never 
made any particular remarks or inquiries about it. As 
I was walking around one day, I saw they had been 
cleaning out the boilers, and remarked to the engineer 
that they had a very large plunger ; he said they had, and 
observed that they had it reduced down to 7 inches 
diameter, as it kept constantly surging and bursting the 
copper supply pipe leading from the force pump to the 
boilers. The present copper pipe was 4 inches in diam- 
eter. He told me they ascribed the bursting of the pipe 
to the copper not being good. I told him almost at the 
first glance that the check valve chamber was too small, 
being only 4 inches clear in the valve seat, and about 
one-third of the opening was closed up with the bridle; 
he said one of the coppersmiths told him the same 



Pumps. 209 

thing, that it was too small. There were 50 square inches 
in the 8 inch plunger, and 12|^ square inches in the 
opening of tJ^e seat, now fully one-third of this must be 
taken out for the bridle in the seat, and there are only 
8 square inches left in the seat, and more than six times 
this in the plunger working very fast, with high steam. 



INOPERATIVE FEED PUMPS. 

" Having from time to time seen correspondence upon 
engineering and mechanical subjects in the Scientific 
American^ I take the liberty to forward you my expe- 
rience with a feed pump to a steam boiler, hoping that 
it (the experience, not the boiler) might prove service- 
able to your readers. In March last the water in one 
of our cylinder boilers kept getting lower and lower 
until they ceased to be safe to w^ork. The difficulty was 
an imperfect operation of the feed pump : the plunger 
was well packed and the valves apparently in good 
order; the water was clean and there seemed to be no 
reason why the pump should not work. Several times 
the engine was started, but to no purpose, as the pump 
still refused duty. After much delay, I found on exam- 
ining the spindle of the feed valve (the scat of this 
valve had a bridge across it on the bottom, in which a 
stem on the valve worked to guide it up and down) that 
it was bright on the end, as if worn. On looking in the 
valve chamber the source of the difficulty was pi duly 
traced, as the stem rested on the bottom of the chamber 
and kept the valve off its seat. The valve seat must 
have worked down, I think, in some way, as the pump 
lb* 



210 The Practical Engineer. 

had always operated well before. Of course, when I 
filed ^'clearance" on the stem there was no further 
trouble. Hoping that this may be of service to your 
readers, I send it for your journal." J. Ii. R. 

I would add to the above (from the Scientific Ameri- 
can) that if the valve seat had been well put in at the 
first, and firmly bedded on the bottom of the valve 
chamber, the valve seat could never have worked down 
as it was said to have done, but I have frequently heard 
and known of pumps giving out from the same cause. 
This is owing to the valve stem below being left too 
long, and not having sufficient clearance left for the 
wear, it beds and sets down the valve in the seat, 
and also owing to the small openings in the valve 
seat, which bring the valve down on the seat hard as 
though it had been struck w^ith a sledge hammer, and 
thus the valve settles down in the seat, and not the seat 
in the chamber. I have often seen worn out ^valves and 
seats wdiere the fillet, or boss, underneath the valve and 
around the valve stem, had come in contact with the 
bridle, owing to the wear of both the seat and the valve, 
and this prevented the pump from working, in the same 
proportion that they were brass bound. The other 
force pump that we have alluded to was inoperative also 
from another cause : a lead ball was found in the 
bend of the pipe as they were taking it off to put in a 
new pump, when they found out the difficulty. It was said 
this pump was bewitched, owing to the trouble they had 
with it before making the discovery. 

CD %J 

Other pumps have refused to w^ork, on account of the 
valve stem fitting too tight in the bridle of the valve 
seat, and to the expansion of the valve stem, with the 



Pumps. 211 

heat ; so that I knew in one instance where it required 
hard pulling with a pair of tongs to get the valve out of 
the seat to file the stem smaller. Others have been bound 
with sand coming in with the w^ater, and others I be- 
lieve have given out owing to the packing yarn having 
been draAvn into the pump either from the cylinder or 
from the packing around the stuflBng box of the plunger, 
which being too small to fill the collar in the force pump 
cuts out the packing. More could be said, but let this 
suffice for the present. 



COLD WATER PUMPS. 

Cold water pumps have sometimes been a great annoy- 
ance and expense on account of leaks in the pipes, 
which have frequently been very hard to find out. I 
recollect of a pump that gave out once, and after they 
did all they could with it to get it to work, they gave 
it up and sent for me. I discovered underneath the 
pipe in the elbow, leading from the pump over the wall 
down into the well, a leak, which was caused by the 
shaking of the pump moving the pipe on the sharp cor- 
ner of the wall, and which wore the pipe through, w^hich 
was the cause of its giving out. 

I know another instance Avhere they had from one to 
two hundred feet of pipe leading dow^n to the river ; the 
pump gave out, they dug up part of the pipe and put in 
new pipe, and it cost them between one and two hun- 
dred dollars, including the lost time, and after all their 
labor and expense was in vain, for w^hen they found out 
the leak, it was in the elbow of the pipe underneath 
where it was fastened to the pump. 



2V2 The Practical Engineer. 

It has been customary in using lead pipe, to mden 
the lead out, and turn a flange on it with a round nose 
hammer. The flange is very thin, and liable to be 
galled in turning it over, and cause it to give out, es- 
pecially if the pipe should vibrate on the working. 
The better plan is to have a brass flange cast with a 
small pipe 2 or 3 inches long, and slip it on the outside 
of the pipe and solder it on. This makes a good 
substantial job. A copper pipe and flange would answe.* 
the same purpose. 



TREACHEROUS FORCE PUMP. 

On board the steamer Cornet^ which ran in the Mobile 
trade, they were occasionally annoyed with their force 
pump, and it frequently gave out all at once, wdien they 
would take off* the caps and remove the valves, but find- 
ing nothing wrong, the caps and valves would be again 
returned to their places, and the engine started. The 
pump would work a day or two very well, and at other 
times not more than a couple of hours, and then give 
out, often when most needed. The engineer left the 
boat, and another took his place, with whom I was well 
acquainted, and he had the same trouble with the pump 
as the former engineer. They had ordered another to 
be made in Mobile, and got along with the old one as 
well as they could until a new one was made. In the 
meantime it gave out again, and the captain became so 
enraged on account of the loss of time, dangers, &c., 
that he was exposed to, that he determined to never run 
the boat again with that pump ; he said he would burn 



TduielOS, 



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is 



bd 



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u 



n 



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TerfectFuntp 



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Pumps. 213 

the boat up first. They frequently said the pump was 
bewitched. 

When finished, the new pump was brought on board ; 
and as soon as they took off the pipes, to take out the 
old pump, there rolled out of the elbow of the receiving 
pipe on to the deck, a round lead ball 1 J inches in diam- 
eter. The copper pipe was 2J inches inside. After 
this they never had any more trouble. The engineer 
said the ball from some cause or other was occasionally 
drawn up, and got fast between the bridle and valve 
seat, or between the point of the stem and the inside 
of the same, and held the valve up so as to prevent it 
from working, but always when they took off the cap to 
examine what was wrong, the ball would disappear by 
settling down in the elbow, and thus they were for a 
long while puzzled to find out .what was the matter, till 
they were taking off the pipes. 

Copper pipes have sometimes been choked on account 
of the rosin not being entirely melted out. It would be 
a good plan to try the copper pipes if they are clear, by 
pouring water through them before putting them on. 
Sometimes the openings are almost shut up by the gum. 



CONSTRUCTION OF A FORCE PUMP. 

We have laid down another draft of a force pump 
with a valve seat and chambers, as they should be made. 
The valve chambers should be deep enough to allow of a 
good depth of valve seat and a thick valve. The top of 
the valve, when up at a full opening, should never be 
allowed to come above the bottom of the opening in the 



14 The Practical Engineer. 

pipe, but should always be a little lower on the top of the 
valve than the opening in the pipe, say from J inch to 
an inch lower, according to the difference in the sizes 
of • pumps. The reaction of water from the boilers 
upon valves thus below the openings, will assist them to 
fall or close ; as the reaction or pressure of the water 
from the boiler comes more directly upon the top of the 
valve, and hastens its fall. The valve F, in the pump 
E, is a model of a perfect pump. The top of the valve 
is below the opening in the pipe G, whilst the valve it- 
self is up at a full opening. In this case, the reaction 
of water from the boiler passes over on the top of the 
valve (instead of striking on the side of the valve, as 
may be seen in the valve B in the force pump A,) and 
helps it to fall into its bed in the valve seat. 

How high a valve s\ould rise to make the opening 
around the circumference equal to the opening in the di- 
ameter of the valve. — This rule is very simple, and also 
very important that engineers should know it. It is 
equally useful to the builder of engines, to know how 
high his puppet valves should rise to give the same num- 
ber of inches around the circumference of the valve seat 
itself. It is useful also to know^ how high the force 
pump, check valves, &c., should rise in order to give as 
much opening in the valve seat. The rule is this : 

The valve should rise one-fourth the diameter of 
opening in valve seat, measuring it at the smallest place 
just at the bottom of the bevel. 

Example. — How high should a three inch valve rise, 
to give as much opening in the circumference as there h 
in the diameter? 






Tac5el06 




Dy-avyn- c-v' ./3hn WaUac' 



Pumps. 



215 



Divide by 4) 3 inches (| inches rise* 



And for a 4 inch valve- 
Divide by 4 ) 4 ( 1 inch rise* 
1 



Table of inches of valves to give the same opening in 
the circumference that thel^e is in the diameter of the 
valve : 

IfiChea rtse. 

- f inch. 

* - \i 

- - I 

- 1 

' - It's 

- * H 

- - h% 

- - U 

- - If 

- n 

■ - H 

- - If 



Diameter of Valves. 


Divide 


by 4)3 


u 




H^ 


(( 




H 


a 




3f - 


(4 




4 


CC 




H- 


iC 




H 


a 




4f - 


a 




5 


a 




^- 


a 




6 


a 




6J- 


a 




7 


a 




8 - 



DEFECT IN FORCE PUMPS MADE IN EARLY 

YEARS. 

Very many of the valve seat chambers in force 
pumps, used in the early days of steam, were made en- 
tirely too shallow. We have seen the top of the valve 



216 The Praciical Engineer. 

seats in force pumps, and check valve chambers, about 
level with the opening in the bottom of the pipe leading 
from the valve chamber to the force pump, on the one 
side of it, and on the other side of the pump from the 
valve chamber to the discharge pipe, to which the pipe 
is attached that feeds the boilers with water. In some 
instances the tops of the valve seats were higher than 
this, in which case the valve stood the thickness of itself 
above the top of the valve seat. It is no wonder that 
force pumps thus constructed, could not be depended 
upon at all times to throw a regular supply of water 
into the boilers. 

In the first place, the valve when bedded in its seat 
stands above the opening in the pipe ; and when raised 
by the plunger, for the purpose of letting the water pass 
through into the boilers, the valve being above the open- 
ing, it is thrown over on its side by the pressure or 
reaction back from the boilers, and sometimes remains 
in this position without falling ; and of course, while in 
this situation, it will throw no water. By frequent tap- 
ping with a hammer, the valve may be caused to fall 
into its scat ; it may then work a while ; but, after a 
short time, when the steam becomes a little higher, the 
pressure on the side of the valve will be greater, and 
the friction so strong that the valve will not fiill, when 
of course the pump cannot Avork. 

We believe the reason why many force pumps refuse 
to do their part is because they w^ere not properly de- 
signed by their constructors. We have seen and heard 
of engineers frequently throwing cold w^ater on their 
force pumps when the engines Avere running, in order 
to start them to work when they had quit throwing : 



TuMP.^. 217 

and tiiey would beat the cap of the force pump very fre- 
quently with a hammer, for the same purpose. Now we 
ask what sense there would be in beating upon the cap 
of a force pump with a hammer, if it were not to bed 
the valve in its seat, which they must suppose to be up? 
If it be up, let them ask themselves the cause, and they 
will find it to be just exactly as we have described it 
above, viz. that the valve chambers were made too shal- 
low to allow the valve seat to sink a proper depth below 
the opening of the pipe in the valve chamber* 

We do not believe the cause to be what many engin- 
eers have stated : '^that the water Avas too hot, and that 
the force pump was working steam," &c.; but one thing 
is certain, the pumps frequently refuse to work, and of 
course, some of our engineers often are put to their 
wits' end to find out what is the matter. If a bvstander 
were to ask them the trouble, they would feel very 
strange if they could not answer him. And they (no 
doubt not knoATing the real cause) Would think it was 
occasioned by the Avater in the force pumps being too 
hot Avhen received from the heater; but the true reason 
of the pump becoming too hot, Avas OAving to the valve 
being up on the discharge side of the force pump next 
to the boilers. Suppose there AAas but a little leak on 
the opposite valve, betAveen the valve and the seat, or 
betAveen the A^alve seat and the A^alve chamber, OAving to 
the lead having partially oxydized or wasted aAvay ; in 
this case the hot Avater AA'ould come back from the boiler 
through the pump into the heater ; this Avould make the 
pump as hot as steam could make it. 

We have laid doAA^n a draft of force pumps AA'ith shal- 
loAv vake chambers, shoAving hoAv the action of the Avater 
19 



218 The Practical EKaiKEER: 

operates on the valve, by pressing it over to the one 
side, as may be seen in the valve B, in the draft of the 
force pump marked A, page 214. 

•But perhaps some may suggest the idea of putting a 
bridle on top of the valve stem, in order to keep it in its 
place, and from tipping over on one side. They can see 
the top bridle D in the force pump marked C ; but this 
bridle will not answer the purpose. The reactive pres- 
sure being on one side of the valve, the friction becomes 
so great as to prevent the valve from falling. Engines 
running very slow might give the valve time to settle 
and fall, while others would not, on account of the in- 
creased speed of their engine. There should be no fric- 
tion of any kind whatever^ to retard these valves from 
falling in the bridles or guards. Valve stems should fit 
easy. 



HOW TO CUT THE LEATHER FOR A PUMP BOX- 

To cut a leather out to fit a pump box, it must be cut 
circular ; aud in order to get the small diameter, it is 
necessary to continue the flare of the pump box until it 
meets in the centre, and this will give the distance for 
the inside circle ; and the outside circle will then be as 
much larger as it is intended the depth of the leather of 
the pump box should be. A box and leather may be 
Been laid down in draft : A is the shape of the leather ; 
B is the pump box, and C is the centre. It is upon this 
principle that strips for laying out boiler iron are made, 
owing to rings being smaller at one end than they are 
at the other. The diiference of the diameter of boiler 



Pa^eJ07. 



^ Stroke €o//t^ 




ae 




Q] 






[ffi 



z 




r 



D 



3 







LI 



Defective foxce 



-^ r-x -?-/-7^ 33< -'^/i^'^- yp^ita^' 



PuMPJ=5. 219 

rings at each end, is equal to the difference of the 

boiler iron ; and the strips for laying out the boilers 
must be laid out accordingly. 



BEST KIND OF VALVE SEATS FOR FORCE 

PUMPS. 

The best kind of valve seats that can be used for 
force pumps, check valves, &c., are made of brass. 
Brass valve seats stand the water better than any thing 
else that has been tried; iron seats soon rust out, and 
wear away much faster than brass. 

We have seen another species of valve seats used as a 
substitute for brass ; it was made of cast iron, and in the 
inside of this valve seat there was a recess turned out 
about f of an inch square, to receive a brass ring which 
was neatly turned to fit in this recess, which recess in 
the casting was a little larger at the bottom than at the 
top, so as to rivet the ring in so tight as to prevent it 
from coming out, as may be seen in the draft of the 
valve seat A. The brass ring B, after it was riveted 
tight into the valve, with a round faced chisel and ham- 
mer, was then put into the lathe and turned off. We 
have tried this plan, and find that it does not answer 
a good purpose on account of the brass ring becoming 
loose in the valve seat after using it a short time. 
We would therefore recommend brass valves and seats 
as the very best that can be made use of for force pumps, 
check valves, &c. 



220 The Practical Engineer. 



VARIOUS MODES OF GEARING PUMPS. 

•Some are worked upright with a pendulum and shaft, 
Tvith the motion taken from the shoving head or end of 
the pitman by a wrist and link, others are worked in 
the same way horizontally, others are worked by cams, 
others by cranks and levers, others by belts. It is a 
good idea to gear pumps so as to run them slower than 
the engine. One great advantage of gearing hot and 
cold Avater pumps to run with belts is, that in case they 
should be frozen up in winter, as pumps frequently are, 
there would be no danger of them breaking when start- 
ing the engine ; in case the ice was not thoroughly 
thawed the belt would slip and discover the difficulty. 
Some persons would not have their pumps to work in any 
other way for this reason, and it is a first rate idea on 
this account. There is a possibility of breaking a pump 
gearing when working with a belt, if the belt should be 
unnecessarily large ; care should be taken that this 
should not be the case. 



DANGEROUS CHECK VALVE CHAMBERS. 

It was customary in early days to have on valve 
chambers of force pumps, and also on those attached to 
the boilers or boiler stand pipes, round caps and flanges, 
to fit the same, so as to take in at least four bolts; and 
a less number than this I do not consider very safe, es- 
pecially for ocean and war steamers. There should be 
six bolts, made of Juniata iron, in each cap, so that if 



Pumps. 221 

one or two bolts should break in tightening the cap, 
there ayouIcI be no risk in running with the rest. Force 
pumps, yalv^e chambers and check valves attached to the 
boilers or boiler stand pipes, are very dangerous ; for 
instance, suppose the check valve chamber attached to 
a number of boilers, and it has but two lugs, and you 
have a round lead or gum gasket under the cap. In 
case it should spring a leak, as they often do, and you 
commence to screw it up hard, and you should break a 
lug off the valve chamber or the cap, owing to the lever- 
age the bolt in the lug has outside of the lead gasket, 
the boilers would be immediately emptied, and under 
certain circumstances numbers might be scalded to 
death, and there is no knowing what damage might be 
done to the boat ; especially if coming over rapids, 
it might prove the loss of the boat; if engaged in a bat- 
tle, it might be the cause of a defeat; and if caught in a 
storm, it might prove to be the loss of the vessel and all 
on board. If valve chamber caps with only two ears 
and but tsvo bolts are used, I prefer lead gaskets made 
the full size, of oblong cap, so that there will be less 
risk and danger of breaking the ears of the valve 
chambers or caps. I would add, that once when I had 
charge of an engine on a boat, we had steam up and 
about putting out, a friend of mine, an engineer on board, 
seeing the valve chamber cap of the force pump leak a 
little, took the hberty to tighten it without leave from 
me, and broke one of the lugs off the pump. I made 
some shift and soon got it in working order. My object 
for commenting so much on this subject is to show, first, 
that all such valve chambers, having but two ears and 
bolts are actually very dangerous. Always when I am 
19* 



222 The Practical Engineer. 

tightening up such caps with a head of steam on, I go 
very cautiously about it, hammering lightly on the cap, 
and screwing gently on the bolts, knowing very well 
what the result would be in case of a break. It has 
now become the custom here as well as almost every 
where else to stint the work and shave every thing about 
an engine as much as it will bear, and sometimes more, 
so that where the engine builder makes one dollar in 
this way, the purchaser very often loses one hundred 
by detention of the boat, including repairs, expenses 
of the hands, &c. 



ACCIDENTS, 



A SAWYER named Willson, employed in a mill at 
East Williamsport, on the Monongahela river, some 
time ago attempted, in the absence of the engineer, to 
^Hramp the balance wheel over the centre." Having a 
full head of steam on at the time, the wheel made a rapid 
revolution, and one of the arms striking him on the 
head, broke his neck, from the effects of which he died 
the next morning. I would add that it is dangerous 
for engineers to get on the fly wheel, to turn it over the 
dead centre with the steam on, or with a throttle valve 
which leaks, although it may be closed, for although the 
engineer knows what he is doing, yet he is very likely 
*to slip when straining to lift the fly wheel over the cen- 
tre, every thing around being perfectly saturated 
Avith grease. And if it is dangerous for the engineer, 
hoAV much more so for one Avho understands little or 
nothing about an engine, and especially in the absence 
of any person who might otherwise be able to render 
assistance in case of an accident. 

I recollect in the early days of steamboating, of 
hearing of a man who went to work on the water wheel, 
and whilst at work the engine was started, and the 
coupling by some means happened to be on the water 



224 The Practical Engineer. 

Avlieel shaft at the time, and it split his head. I would 
suppose from the nature of the accident that he was 
standing at the side of the wheel shifting the buckets. 

Some time after this on board the steamer Lagrange^ 
there was a carpenter at work on the water wheel, and 
the engine was started, and he was killed instantly. 
Boats in these days had two main and two water wheel 
shafts, and the couplings were very greasy and loose, 
and if the boat should happen to be listed considerably, 
there would be great danger of them sliding on from 
their own weight. 

All such steamers should have at least one strong 
stirrup attached to an eye bolt made fast in the heavy 
timber, to slip on the water wheel arm to hold it se- 
cure w^hen any one is on the wheel at work. This stirrup 
is indispensably necessary on another account, in case 
of a strong current and running drift, as in time of 
high water. I have been working on the water wheels 
many a time at the arms, braces^ &c., when drift 
would run against the wheel and keep it moving round 
for some time; in such cases I have held on- to the arms 
and Avalked round on the shaft inside of the buckets 
until it would stop. I confess this Avas a dangerous op- 
eration and should not have been done. Sometimes we 
w^ould have a man to hold the Avheel from turning with 
the current, drift or ice, &c., until we were done. 

There was an account in the newspaper, of a man 
having his head blown off' by standing before the cylin- 
der head of a locomotive engine. This is a dangerous 
place to stand, especially if the engine is old, as the 
nuts and threads from constant use and wear become 
slack, and in some cases almost stripped. This caution 



Accidents. 225 

larly important when letting on high steam 
especially if the load is heavy and the grade 

^ a was w^alking on a large beam of timber to do 
hj -rk, and whilst passing above the fly wheel, which 
was running at a rapid speed, he fell on it and w^as 
killed. It is likely that he became giddy by looking 
down at the wheel in rapid motion and lost his balance. 
Many persons have been killed by standing before 
large grindstones making rapid revolutions, which have 
burst into fragments. No doubt one reason of bursting 
60 frequently, is they Avere wedged up tight with dry 
wood, and then filled in with iron w^edges, and water run- 
ning constantly on the stone swells the wood, and this 
with the rapid motion would readily burst it. Care should 
be taken not to run a large stone with rapid motion ; as 
the speed increases, the disproportion between the cen- 
tripetal and centrifugal forces diminishes. "^ It would 
be possible to make a circular plate of cast iron, which 
possesses far more adhesive power than stone, revolve at 
such a rate that it would fly off* in pieces. To prevent 
this result in grindstones, plates with screws are some- 
times fastened to them. In this way they can be set 
quicker and truer. Still the fact mentioned shows this 

* For the sake of common readers, we explain that the centripetal 
force is the attraction or power that holds the stone together. The 
centrifugal force is the power communicated by rotary motion, 
which tends to throw off any substance from the circumference. 
Put water on a grindstone, and by a slow motion it can be kept on 
it, incre:\se the speed and it flies off. AVhen this takes phxce the 
centrifugal force, or tendency to fly off, overcomes the centripetal 
force or tendency to remain. And what takes place with the water 
it is easy to see will take place with the stone itself, if the speed is 
efficiently increased. 



226 The Practical Engineer. 

will not give entire protection against danger from Ligh 
speed. 

It should also be considered that in proportion to the 
increase of the size of the stone must be the reduction 
of the quickness of its revolution. The danger must 
be estimated not by the number of revolutions in a given 
time, but by the rapidity of the motion of the stone's 
circumference. Suppose two stones, one of 3 and the 
other of 6 feet diameter, are revolving at the same rate. 
The circumference of the latter will move with double 
the speed of that of the former. If then the small 
stone is at its highest speed to be safe, the large one 
must fly to pieces. 

Persons have been killed by being caught in gearing 
and belts. Great care should be taken, especially on 
the sides of two wheels running together, or on the side 
of the belt that runs down with the pulley; the one side 
draws in, and the other out, but there is danger on 
either side in case of being fastened to the gearing or 
belting. All persons about mills, factories, &c., should 
be careful not to wear long tail coats, large dresses, 
shawls, &c., as many persons in this way have lost there 
lives. I heard of a man working in an iron lathe, 
with a hand tool. The lathe was running very fast, and 
he had a handkerchief tied around his neck with long 
ends hanging down ; while leaning over the lathe turning, 
the end or ends of the handkerchief were caught in the 
iron in the lathe. Immediately it began to wind up 
and drag him in, and no doubt would have killed him 
had it not been for some person at hand who unshipped 
the lathe. This will also apply to wood turners. 

Care should be taken by the persons turning to have 



tkeir pieces well centered^ so that they will not fly out of 
the lathe, a thing which frequently happens and is very 
dangerous, nor run from the centre whilst turning. 
To avoid this it is customary with a great many to first 
centre the piece true on the lathe, then take it out and 
drill a small hole in each end from f to f of an inch 
deep, and from J- to |^ of an inch in diameter, de- 
pending on the si^e of the piece you are turning. The 
centre of the lathe then keeps to the centre of the small 
hole. The centre of the lathe always keeps drawing to 
the centre of ihe small hole, whereas when there is 
no hole drilled, the centre point being solid it cannot 
work its way into the piece you are turning, especially 
if it is very heavy. Its own weight, and the pressure 
on the point from the tool cutting it, keeps shifting it 
from side to side, and enlarging in this way the centre 
so that it is impossible to turn it true. I recollect one 
of the best workmen in Pittsburgh, when turning small 
spindles for cotton machinery, say from i to f diameter, 
lad a lathe on purpose to drill every centre before 
turning. 



CAUTION TO BOILER MAKERS AND ENGINEERS. 

Boiler and engine makers should never allow any one 
to go inside a boiler, either for the purpose of holding 
on to the rivet heads whilst building the boiler or to 
3lean it out, who is so large that he has to be squeezed 
through the man-hole. It is exceedingly dangerous. 
A.n instance of this happened at our boiler yard when 
e were building a locomotive boiler; a boy had to be 



228 The Practical Engineer. 

forced through the man-hole in the steam dome to hold 
on to the rivets while fastening the steam dome to the 
boiler. When this AYas done he could not get out, hav- 
ing from some cause swelled while in. The boss boiler 
maker, James Booher, told me of the matter and asked 
me what to do J I told him to break the boiler headj 
w^hich fortunately was made of cast iron ; they cut the 
rivets out of the head and then broke it. If the head 
had been w'rought iron, it would have been more danger^ 
ous, as it could not have been broken, but would have to 
be cut out, and whilst doing this there would be danger 
of smotheringi 

Another instance of the same kind happened at oui" 
boiler yard. The father of this same boy went inside 
of a twenty-four inch boiler to hold on to the rivets 
whilst putting on the boiler head. When the head was 
put in and fastened, he could not get out, being too large 
for the man-hole. The rivets had to be cut oif and the 
boiler head taken out to release him. A smaller man 
was afterward sent in and the head put in again. 

A fireman on the river went into a double flued boiler 
to clean it out. Being in liquor at the time, he got his 
leg between the flues and could not get it out ; in trying 
to get it out he irritated it so that it swelled. Help 
was sent in to assist in getting it out, but it could not 
be don:?. The engineer told me that he took in some 
wedges and drove in between the flues and sprung them 
apart, and then had to bruise the leg and flesh in order 
to pull it out. It was fortunate that it was in the mid* 
die of the boiler, for if it had been at either end ifc 
would not have been an easy matter to spring the flues 
without flattening and destroying them, so that they 
would have to be taken out and repaired. 



Accidents. 229 

The following is taken from anewspajoer: — ^^On Sat- 
urday of week before last, as several men were cleaning 
out two boilers at the coal works of the Ravine coal 
company, in Pittston, some one turned on the steam 
and hot water from the other boilers, scalding the men 
so that the flesh dropped from their bones. Four have 
since died." 

It is also dangerous standing before fly wheels run- 
ning at very fast speed, as they frequently fly to pieces, 
sometimes going out through the house and at other 
times through the roof, &c. 

It is also dangerous standing before boiler heads that 
have the man plates screwed fast on the outside, espe- 
cially when the nuts become slack from wear. There 
have been instances I believe of their blowing off"; I 
heard of one some time ago. However, outside plates 
are now mostly out of date, and the inside plates used 
in their stead. 

There are many other ways by which persons may be 
injured by machinery. I mention these few to put the 
unwary and unthinking on their guard ; persons running 
engines and handling machinery had need to be wide 
awake and constantly on their guard. Never go to 
sleep on duty. 

When acting as foreman at New Albany, Ind., I 
heard it said in the shop in which I w^as at work, that 
there was a fireman on board of a certain steamer went 
into one of the boilers to clean it out, and they pumped 
up the boilers and put out in haste, and never missed 
the man until under w^ay; as to the particulars, I 
never heard much, as it was rather a delicate matter 
to say much about. The engineer, however, w^as then 
20 



230 The Practical Engineek. 

liired at $100 per month, which was as good then as 
$250 or $300 per month now, for the purpose of super- 
intending the building of a large steamer, with five boil- 
ers, 43 inches diameter, to run in the Mobile trade. By 
particular request I made him a draft of the engine, 
for which he paid me my own price when the work was 
done, never once asking what would be the price before- 
hand. 

Another instance : I have know^n the man for many 
years, and he used to build engines in Pittsburgh, he 
told me it himself time and again. When on board of 
some new steamer building at Pittsburgh, he was at 
work in one of the boilers, whether he was putting in 
bolts or what else I can't say, but I do not suppose his 
work was such as made much noise, because he told he 
was shut up and the man plate was put in the boiler ; he 
was at the front end, and one of the gauge cocks hap- 
pening to be out, he whistled through the gauge cock 
holoj when some person who was on the deck of the 
boat heard him, immediately gave the alarm and the 
man plate was taken off and he came out. I have no 
doubt but what he may have told the same story to hun- 
dreds. His name was John Scott, engine builder, Pitts- 
burgh. He was well known here at that time, which is 
upward of twenty years ago. I mention these facts to 
put engineers and others on their guard. Never close 
your boilers until you are sure there is nobody in^ but 
take the same care of the lives of those under your 
charge as you would wish them to take of yours if you 
were under them- 



MISCELLANEOUS, 



VARIOUS CAUSES FOR ENGINES SURGING, 
LABORING, &c. 

Engines frequently surge when coming over the dead 
centre, and often the engineers are puzzled to find out 
the cause. I will state some of the causes. This takes 
place when there is too little clearance between the pis- 
ton head and the cylinder heads, and when the pitman 
brasses are worn ; in such cases the piston head strikes 
on the fast cylinder head, and sometimes the brasses 
after wearing will not key up tight on the wrists, and re- 
quire chipping in the centre, to give clearance for draw- 
ing them up as it wears; and in all such cases as this 
there will not only be beating on the wrists, at both ends 
of the slides, but the piston head will strike on one or 
both cylinder heads. Frequently the main shaft is very 
long, and not being large and stiff in proportion to its 
length, and having a heavy fly wheel, it springs and 
causes the fly wheel to wabble and the shaft to tremble. 
When this is the case an engine never can be made to 
run smooth and easy. Others have their main shaft 
made entirely too short, just barely room to get the cam, 
fly wheel, band, pulley, cog wheel or crank on the end 



232 The Practical Engineer. 

of it. It is hard for such engines to work easy; the 
side boxes on the main shaft must he kept all the time 
very tight, for if there is the least clearance it throws 
the crank out of square and causes the pitman to spring, 
and this will be in proportion to the length or shortness 
of the shaft. A shaft 8 feet long will be thrown out of 
square on the wrist only one-half as much as one 4 feet, 
and one 16 feet only one-fourth as much as the 4 feet. 
The main shaft ought to be at least from three to four 
times the length of the stroke of the engine. 

Where the points of the piston head bolts and nuts 
have been battered up by striking on the loose cylinder 
heady clearance may be given in different ways. First, 
by putting in a thicker lead gasket on the loose cylinder 
head. Sometimes where the head was thick enough we 
would drill holes a quarter cr half inch in it, for the 
point of the bolts and nuts to work into. Sometimes 
we would countersink the follower J or f inch, to receive 
the nuts of the follower's bolts; sometimes we would turn 
a little off one or both cylinder heads, as would be neces- 
sary. Sometimes we would turn some off the piston 
head, and sometimes the follower, and make it shallower. 
Sometimes we would make the nuts thinner and cut a 
little off the points of the bolts. And lastly, if you were 
hard put to, you could shorten the stroke by putting a 
new wrist in the crank, and turning the wrist on two 
different centres. Say you wanted to shorten the stroke 
half an inch or more, set the centre of the wrist a 
quarter of an inch below the centre of the hole in 
which it goes, then be particular in putting the mor- 
tise on the wrist to have the low side of the wrist next 
to the crank. 



Miscellaneous. '233 

For example: I have often seen the point of the bolts 
and nuts battered up by striking on the cylinder head, 
where the clearance was scant. Suppose there was a 
quarter of an inch false motion at each end of the pit- 
man in the brasses, then the pitman would allow the pis- 
ton head to travel J of an inch each way farther than 
the crank would allow, if the false mot'on was taken out 
of the pitman brasses by chipping them off, giving them 
draft and putting in backing behind the brasses. It is 
also necessary that the side boxes for the main shaft of 
the engine be kept close to the journals. Sometimes 
the packing gets slack for want of proper attention, and 
the follower in such cases will beat back and forward 
every revolution. Sometimes the piston heads get loose 
on the rod and beats back and forward; this is not likely 
to happen when the work is done as it should be. I 
was on board of a new steamer on her first trip out from 
Pittsburgh, and she had not made more than two miles 
down the river till she had to land, and remain until we 
took ofi* the cylinder head, and drew out the piston rod 
and head and found it to be loose on the rod. I sup- 
pose the keys had been driven up with a hand hammer 
instead of a sledge. The cylinder was 16 inches diameter, 
6 feet stroke; built at our shop. This was the fault of 
both the boss and the man who put it on : the boss first, 
for trusting a man to do this particular kind of work 
with whom he was not acquainted, being a new hand ; 
it was the fault of the man for undertaking to do a 
thing he did not understand, as it requires to be done in 
the best manner by the best workman. Another caXise 
is, frequently the wrist gets loose in the crank and re- 
quires to be keyed or taken out and bushe4. Sometimes 
20* 



234 The Practical Engineer. 

the crank may become loose on the shaft, having been 
put on too slack at the first. Another grand cause is 
letting the steam into the cylinder too soon, before the 
crank comes over the centre ; and just in proportion to 
the amount let in too soon, in the same proportion will 
be the surging. This is destructive to an engine, causing 
it to labor most unnaturally and drag, being hardly 
able to move. It is also a bad plan to let it on too late, 
as it is a waste of steam and power to fill a portion of 
the cylinder with steam, without producing any efi'ect on 
the crank. This is, however, a less evil than the former. 
Another cause is, when the water is carried too high 
in the boilers, it does not leave a sufiiciency of room in 
the boilers to hold dry steam. And also the want of a 
steam drum. Another cause is when the steam pipes on 
the boilers are too small, causing the boilers to foam, 
and thereby priming or filling the cylinder with Avater. 
Another cause is neglect on the part of the engineer to 
keep the cylinder cocks sufficiently open at all times to 
let out the water made by the condensed steam. 
Another cause, which some engineers may be perplexed 
with for a long time, and others may not be able to find 
out at all, is the heater drum inside may have cor- 
roded, so as to leak a portion of the water into the cyl- 
inder, and produce serious consequences. They may 
also be injured by the frost, and in order to find this out 
it would be necessary to stop and make an examination. 
Another cause is taking the steam from the end of a 
steam pipe; this is sure to draw water, especially if it is 
flush in the boilers. Another cause is, when the cylin- 
der is a shade tighter on one end than the other. It is 
almost impossible to get a true cylinder; as the end of 



Miscellaneous. • 235 

the boring head comes out last, it is likely to be the 
tightest on account of the cutters having partially lost 
their keen edge for cutting. 

Another cause, especially when rope and hemp pack- 
ing were used, is the piston head being suffered to get 
down, and rub on the bottom of the cylinder, and 
grunt and scrape it. When I used this kind of packing, 
before screwing the follower up hard, I raised it up as 
far as I could by putting in a wedge or knife, and then 
screwed it up tight, as the wear is mostly to be on the 
bottom side of the horizontal cylinders and packing. 

Another cause of surging is, the nuts on the piston 
head bolts may be too slack and work back, and often- 
times come off; this causes surging, and if there is not 
clearance for the nut something is sure to break some 
where. Much damage has been caused in this way. 
Hence the necessity of using false followers to prevent 
the nuts from turning. Another cause of engines run- 
ning rough and jarring and shaking the building is lop- 
sided and drunken jfty wheels, by not being properly 
balanced. With such fly wheels it is impossible for an 
engine to run regular, smooth or easy. 

For example : put a stick of timber in a lathe and 
centre it a little to one side, and it will be very apt to 
jump out of the lathe, and if you should manage to hold 
it in by hard screwing, it will shake everything about it, 
so that it is dangerous to be near it. For this reason, 
in making cast iron pulleys, it is customary to rivet 
pieces on the heavy sides for the purpose of making 
them balance as near as possible ; and sometimes to make 
them run true they turn the inside of the pulley close 
up to the arms. There is another cause which is some- 



236 The Practical Enginee?.. 

times exceedingly difficult to find out, as it is in some 
cases not to be seen, but it tells the story of defective work- 
manship by constant beating produced by false motion 
in the same. I allude to those shaft heads and flanges 
and cranks that were generally used in early days on 
steamers, and also stationary engines. They were usu- 
ally bolted together with six or eight bolts, with jogs 
on the shaft head, and flange or crank, let into each 
other, and unless these jogs are a close fit with a shade 
draft screwed up hard and tight, they will work loose 
and chew the bolts and keep getting worse and worse. 
Some to avoid the labor of fitting, have put in cast 
steel keys, but if they are fitted up right by a master 
workman they are better without keys. Another cause 
is, when the fly wheel flange which is bored out goes on 
the shaft rather easy, one key in such cases will not be 
sufficient to hold, where it might possibly do if the 
flange was drawn on to the shaft with screws and clamps 
similar to car wheels. These flanges are generally put 
on by hand, and sometimes driven up with a battering 
ram. When putting them on this way, I get the distance 
the back of the fly wheel flange comes from the cam 
flange on the main shaft, and I have it left jq or 
J of an inch larger than the main body of the shaft, 
tapering the large diameter for one inch back, down to 
nothing on the small diameter, and then it would be 
advisable to file a little ofi* the back or corner of the back 
side of the flange, and then drive the flange up tight 
from the outside, and there will be little danger of the 
wheel sliding on the shaft either way. The extra size 
of the diameter on one side and the keys on the other, 
when well fitted and driven up, will be likely to hold it 



Miscellaneous. 237 

to its place without shifting. We had a 12 feet fly 
wheel on our engine shaft. The body of the shaft was 
about 7 inches in diameter. The fly wheel flange was 
slipped on by hand; it worked very well for a little 
while at first, but it got to sliding on the shaft to one 
side, and cutting the joist above; we kept still sliding it 
back as it slipped over. It kept chawing the key and 
seat, it also cut the shaft smaller and bored the flange 
larger, until we put in a bush of sheet iron all round, 
nearly ^ of an inch. We would have taken it down 
long ago, rather than be annoyed with it as we were, 
but the segments wore not only bolted together, but 
riveted hard and fast, so that it was rather too much 
of a job to undertake. I would therefore, in conclu- 
sion, recommend the above plan, and insist on putting 
in good large keys and seats, for I tell you it takes 
good fitting and solid keying to hold the flange firmly 
on the shaft without yielding, when the engine is run- 
ning and the fly wheel under full headway, and then the 
engine all of a sudden stopped and the motion reversed. 
This will tell whether the fitting up has been well done 
or not. Another cause is, when the main shafts are too 
short ; if there should be any yield it is harder on the 
crank, wrist and pitman, causing them to spring. 
Another cause is, when the shaft, pillar block and bed 
plates are made rather light ; and lastly, when the shafts 
are made too long they will be liable to spring, espcr 
cially if there is a heavy fly wheel in the centre, and not 
well balanced. 

Another cause of engines laboring is, that frequently 
in casting the side pipes for the cylinder, they are made 
too long and at other times too short, and in such cases 



238 The Practical Enghneek. 

the pipes are often used in this way by dressing off the 
flanges projecting on the outside, square with each other, 
whilst at the same time perhaps one-half or more of the 
opening in the cylinder nozzle at each end may be 
closed, and this no doubt has often been the reason why 
engines have failed to work up to their power. 

Another cause of surging and clattering in pitmans, 
strap joints, &c., is when the brass boxes are too small 
for the straps. Another cause is, when the pitman 
timbers do not fill the straps sufl&ciently tight at each 
end would allow the straps to spring up back and for- 
ward every time the piston goes out on the lower centre. 
Another cause is, when the bottom and side brasses fit 
too loose in the pillar block, and in addition the journal 
on the shaft being turned too wide to make a good fit. 
When machinery is thus carelessly fitted up, it is impos* 
sible to have a quiet, smooth working engine. 

Another cause of engines laboring and dragging very 
hard, is the metallic packing having been screwed up too 
tight. When we first used it in our shop we experimented 
on it, to see how tight it would bear to be screwed up so as 
not to leak, and at the same time work free and easy, 
tightened it up and set the engine to run for a short 
time, and then I bedded up the follower, and then 
tightened the nuts by turning them one-eighth of a turn 
round, which would be but one 64th part of an inch, sup- 
posing 8 threads to the inch, and then set the engine 
running again, and it would run very well for an hour or 
two at the rate of from 80 to 100 revolutions per minute ; 
and all of a sudden it would begin to slacken its speed 
down to 30, 20 and 10 revolutions per minute, and at other 
times it would stick and stop dead. And when we 



Miscellaneous. 239 

would have steam up at its highest, I have had long 
levers rigged so as to pry on the fly wheel arms, with as 
many men as I could get around it, and at the same I 
have stood by with a full head of steam and the throttle 
valve handle in my hand to watch the engine when it 
would move, so as to stop it in time that none would be 
hurt. Our object was to get the piston out of the cylin- 
der, and ease it a little by either scraping or sand paper- 
ing it a little on the high places where it rubbed or 
made its mark. The least scraping imaginable some- 
times will be suflScient to allow it to work free and easy. 
I would say here, of two evils choose the least, which is 
that it is better for the piston head to be a little slack 
than too tight, for two or three reasons. First, it will 
do more work. I heard once on a boat where it was too 
tight, and bent the piston rod something like a hook. 
I have also heard of its having to be taken off a boat 
when running, owing to its sticking, and hemp or rope 
worked in its place ; and but a few miles from here, 
I heard of a singular instance on a stationary engine, 
of its having stopped all of a sudden and breaking the 
engine crank square off. This was no doubt owing to the 
headway and weight of the fly wheel being suddenly 
checked. The best remedy when the piston head gets 
ast in this way, is to cool the cylinder down outside 
and inside with water, and take it out and scrape it as 
iescribed above. 

Some engineers may wonder how the piston head 

jould run one or two hours and then stop all of a sud- 

en. I will give my views on this subject. The piston 

nay be screwed up a slight shade too tight, and yet the 

ngine will run at a fair speed with high steam, but in 



240 The Peactical Engineer. 

a short time running, the friction caused by screwing 
the packing too tight,, causes it gradually to heat hotter 
than the steam, and expand until it gets tighter and 
tighter and stops all of a sudden, and in some cases 
bends the piston rod or breaks the cranky &c., owing to 
circumstances. Some will wonder how its sudden stop- 
ping would bend the piston rod on a boat engine. I will 
explain this : Suppose the piston were suddenly to stick 
in the cylinder when the boat is under full headway, 
the motion given to the water wheels by the headway 
of the boat is what causes the piston rod to bend up 
double. Just the same as the headway of the fly wheel 
breaking off the crank, and the same principle that 
caused the steamer Pocahontas to break off both her 
main shafts suddenly, and at the same time to cause a 
streak of blue fire to come out of the stufiBng box of 
the piston rod toward the cabin. This was caused by 
a small key dropping out of the puppet head attached 
to the valve on the exhaust side of the engine when the 
boat was under full headway, and the steam in the 
cylinder on this account could not escape and was 
compressed so as to produce the fearful results already 
stated. I have heard it said after this accident the gib 
and key were introduced into the puppet heads, so that 
the key might be made fast with a pin or nail ; whether 
this is so or not I cannot say. Some used split keys, 
and others keys with rings in, but neither of these 
would do for a finished job. You no doubt have 
frequently taken notice of a small stream of water 
running on the piston rod, it is said for the purpose of 
keeping the packing around the rod from burning, as it 
is said that the steam burns it. I admit it may in pai 



Miscellaneous. 241 

be the cause. I have no doubt that one great cause of 
its burning is the friction of the piston rod moving fore 
and aft in the packing, which being sometimes screwed 
up very hard, is of itself suflBcient to set it on fire ; 
this with the hot steam makes it very easily burnt. I 
have seen blankets frequently burnt to a cinder which 
were lapped around the steam pipes to prevent the con- 
densation of steam. 



CYLINDERS OUT OF TRUE. 

Unless the cylinder is tolerably true, it is impossible 
for an engine to run well, and there are fewer true cyl- 
inders than most persons would imagine. I have always 
contended that the end of the cylinder last bored would 
be a shade less than the other, for this reason, that the 
edge of the cutters will become blunt as they advance. 
Some have told me that they will not, but if they do not 
lose any of their edge in cutting 6 or 8 feet, they will 
not in 6 or 8000 feet. Now if the cutters by use get 
dull, then the end last bored will be a shade less than 
the first. I mentioned this to an engine builder, and 
he told me he had seen the end bored last the largest. 
The cause of this is, it is probable that the two centres on 
which the boring barrel works were not exactly opposite 
to each other, and this would account for it, the same 
Way that you turn a piece of iron tapering in the lathe, 
by shifting the lathe head to one side. It is not to be 
expected that a cylinder could be bored out true, where 
both centres of the lathe heads were not true to each 
other nor parallel to the sheers. We then conclude that 
21 



242 The Phactical EngijSteer. 

the end last bored is the smallest of the two ends of th^ 
cylinder, and should be made the packing end, for this 
reason : if yom- cylinder should be tight packed when 
you give it the steam, and it once starts, it works with 
the greatest ease; but if the other end should be the 
tight end and the piston head tight packed, the moment 
the engine starts it runs up like a wedge, and sticks 
and will not work unless the packing is slacked. There 
is also danger of bursting the cylinder if very high 
steam were used in starting. I believe it is a first rate 
plan to drawbore cylinders by grinding them a few days 
with a stone and sand and water, or by using a circu- 
lar piece of lead cast in the cylinder for this purpose, 
with a long handle to pull it fore and aft, and polish it 
with emery and oil, and in this way the tight end might 
be made larger. We have frequently drawbored cylinders 
with stone and sand, and with lead, emery and oil, and 
find it to be a great improvement to the boring; it 
answers the same purpose in the cylinder that draw 
filing was used for on the piston rods, valve stems, &c., 
or in other words^ it runs the grain the same way as the 
friction, which otherwise would be crossways when 
bored or turned. I never thought that the boring of 
cylinders horizontal was a good plan, for the following 
reasons: especially the first cut when boring out the 
cylinder, the boring head wallows round and round in 
the cylinder, crowded up with sand and borings, which 
grinds the edge of the cutters, and makes them dull 
sooner than they would do if kept clean, and on this 
account they are liable to heat, and it is sometimes 
force work getting them through the first cut. I have 
thought that a bellows at the one end when boring, to 



Miscellaneous. 248 

give a constant blast, would be a good thing to blow 
back the sand and dirt as soon as cut. But it appears 
to me the best principle to construct a boring millj 
would be to have the cylinder stand on end, and com- 
mence boring from above, then the dirt and cuttings 
fall out as soon as made, and the cutters would in this 
way retain their edge much longer ; and there is less 
danger of the chips and iron cuttings getting between 
the wood in the boring head and the cylinder, which 
would spring the shaft and cause the cylinder to be 
bored more or less out of truth, as it is liable to do and 
is done on the former plan. 

I am well acquainted with a man who put up steam 
boat engines, who told me that he put up forty cylinders 
in one season, and not one of them was perfect, but a 
shade tighter at one end than the other ; notwithstand- 
ing this, I suppose they Avere true enough to have run 
the engine alone without any packing in the piston 
head. 



HOW TO PUT A TRUE WRIST IN A CROOKED 

HOLE. 

It sometimes happens in shrinking cranks on shafts, 
that the crank may not be quite hot enough, or the hole 
in it may be a shade too tight, and from this or some 
other cause you may not get it on quite as far as you 
intended ; and in hammering it on it sometimes happens 
to be driven a little harder on one side than the other, 
thus causing the hole to be out of true, and throwing 
the wrist out of square. I knew an instance of this 



244 The Practical Engineer. 

kind. The wrist could never be kept cool, it was always 
heating, and required constant oiling and nursing like a 
sick child. I was told one of the causes was that the 
wrist was not exactly true with the shaft, for the rea- 
sons already stated. It could not be got off without a 
great deal of labor and expense, besides being material- 
ly injured. I said when hearing of it, that I could 
easily put a true wrist in a crooked hole, by turning it 
on two different centres. One way of doing this is, 
first, to fit the wrist into the crank, then turn the shaft 
round and chip four square points on the wrist, parallel 
with the journals on the main shaft, and then centre 
the wrist to suit these points, and turn the wrist from 
these centres, being careful to put the wrist in the 
crank right, as it would fit only one way. 



BALANCE GOVERNOR VALVE. 

You find on page 244 a draft of a balance governor 
valve and throttle chamber, all cast together. This 
plan answers very well for small engines. C is the bal- 
ance valve in the governor chamber. There are three 
different kinds of valves in the draft. A, B and C. 
The valve A is the best of the three for regulating most 
engines, on account of having four mitre openings cut 
out around the circle, below the top of each plug or 
valve. B is a round plug, filling each opening in the 
valve chamber on top ; the plug is tapered off a little 
below, which gives a gradual opening when the valve 
commences rising. This valve is similar to the valve A, 
answering the same purpose and is easier made. 



nfii^iii '«••• 



Mi^ 



iMim 



A. B C. 

n n . ^ 



TO ^ 



&ov^7ywr &al/ar7j^ ^^^li^/^^zndyytkrott2^ 




Jjyoi-T?^ ir yc?u^ yl^Ul. 



Miscellaneous. 245 

The valve C is the same as the common puppet valve, 
having four Avings below each valve to keep it from 
getting out of its place. This valve i^f superior to the 
others for rolling mills, &c., on account of its letting 
the steam on to the engine more suddenly than either 
of the other two. 



TABLE OF MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. 

The movements illustrated on this page are for the 
conversion of circular motion into rectilinear motion. 

Fig. 89. An eccentric generally used on the crank 
shaft for communicating the reciprocating rectilinear 
motion to the valves of steam engines, and sometimes 
used for pumping. 

Fig. 90. A modification of the above; an elongated 
yoke being substituted for the circular strap, to obviate 
the necessity for any vibrating motion of the rod which 
works in fixed guides. 

Fig. 91. Triangular eccentric, giving an intermittent 
reciprocating rectilinear motion, used in France for the 
valve motion of steam engines. 

Fig. 92. Ordinary crank motion. 

Fig. 93. - Crank motion, with the crank-wrist working 
in a slotted yoke, thereby dispensing with the oscillating 
connecting-rod or pitman. 

Fig. 94. Two circular plates revolving on the same 
centre. In one a spiral groove is cut; in the other a 
series of slots radiating from the centre. On turning 
one of these plates around its centre, the bolt shown 
near the bottom of the figure, and which passes through 
21* 



246 The Practical Engineer. 

the spiral groove and radial slots, is caused to move 
toward or from the centre of the plates. 

Fig. 95. On rotating the upright shaft, reciprocating 
rectilinear motion is imparted by the oblique disk to the 
upright rod resting upon its surface. 

Fig. 96. A heart cam. Uniform traversing motion 
is imparted to the horizontal bar by the rotation of the 
heart-shaped cam. The dotted lines show the mode of 
striking out the curve of the cam. The length of 
traverse is divided into any number of parts; and from 
the centre a series of concentric circles are described 
through these points. The outside circle is then divided 
into double the number of these divisions, and lines 
drawn to the centre. The curve is then drawn through 
the intersections of the concentric circles and the 
radiating lines. 

Fig. 97. This is a heart cam similar to Fig. 96, ex- 
cept that it is grooved. 

Fig. 98. Irregular vibrating motion is produced by 
the rotation of the circular disk, in which is fixed a pin 
working in an endless groove cut in the vibrating arm. 

Fig. 99. Spiral guide attached to the face of a disk; 
used for the feed motion of a drilling machine. 

Fig. 100. Quick return motion, applicable to shaping 
machines. 

Fig. 101. Rectilinear motion of horizontal bar, by 
means of vibrating slotted bar hung from the top. 

Fig. 102. Common bolt and nut; rectilinear motion 
from circular motion. 



Fig9 0. rXFt gd/ 




MiSCELLANEOUSt 247 



ENGINEERING TRICK. 



When in Louisville, a shopmate of mine told me that 
when he was running engineer on the river, and stand- 
dug his watch, he would alter the cam rod before the 
other engineer came on watch ; this he did for the pur- 
pose of making better time than his partner, and of 
course when he came on he would set it right again, to 
let them see how much better he could run the engine. 



CAUTION TO DISTILLERS OF OIL. 

Persons having charge of oil stills about refineries, 
should be very particular in the winter to see that the 
water is drained ofi* from the different pipes, tanks, and 
all other vessels about the premises that are liable to 
freeze, and do damage, when standing a few days, 
especially between Saturday and Monday. There was 
an oil refinery on the bank of the Allegheny river, 
near the Arsenal. After standing two days and two 
nights in extreme cold weather, one of the hands 
kindled fire under the oil still, and kept firing up for 
about the &pace of six hours, when the man-plate blew 
off the top of the still about 50 feet high in the air, and 
the burning oil flew up it was said about 200 feet high. 
The still held about 30 barrels, and it rained down the 
burning oil in large quantities. Two men that were 
standing alongside of the oil still were burnt to a crisp. 
This accident was caused from neglect of duty, for want 
of letting the water out of the Ioav part of the pipe, in 



248 The •Practical Engineer. 

the crooked elbow that leads from the oil still to the 
condenser, which was filled with water and froze solid, 
and for want of vent, there was no other remedy but an 
explosion. The building was set on fire and partially 
destroyed. The boiler, breeching and chimney, with 
other things, were scattered. I mention this fact to 
show the necessity of all oil refineries having a set 
screw, or a small cock, which is far better, in the lowest 
part of the pipe, for the purpose of draining the water 
off the pipe, and keeping the passage clear in the winter 
season. And it would be a first rate plan, to have a 
safety valve on top of the still to guard against acci- 
dents of any kind. The pipe is also liable to be filled 
up sometimes with the dregs of the oil, &c. 



RULES FOR SQUARING AND LINING OF SHAFTS. 

Rule 1. — For squaring and lining of shafts, as used 
upon our steamers in early years, with one cylinder 
and four shafts — two main and two water wheel shafts. 
First — stretch a line through the centre of the cylinder 
timbers fore and aft with the boat ; then fit a flat piece 
of board between the cylinder timbers, even with the 
top of the timbers and at the centre of the shafts ; 
then make a centre point on this board for the tramble 
point at the centre of the shafts, and also on the line 
passing through the centre of the cylinder timbers and 
main wrist ; then take any distance you please on the 
tr ambles — say 10 feet — and from the centre of the 
shaft ; make a scribe or point from the shaft each way 
from the centre, 10 feet each ; then from these two 



Tiule foj^ sauarift^ Shafts by6 SAlO. 



1 







xO. 






^'/ 






nO 
^V^ 







Miscellaneous. 349 

points on the straight line in the centre of the cylinder 
timbers ; place the trambles and describe two circles 
that will intersect each other on the timber which is to 
receive the pillar block on which the end of the main 
shaft is to rest ; then stretch the line across the curves 
on these timbers, and this line for your shaft will be 
square with the centreline through the cylinder timbers. 
The next thing then before laying out for your pillar 
blocks, is to get the line for the shafts parallel, or at 
equal distances on both sides of the boat, with the sheer 
plank, and then the shafts w^ould be level when the boat 
is in trim. 

Rule 2. — How to square the shaft line to the cylin- 
der lines by figures — 6, 8 and 10, or any other numbers, 
more or less, in the same proportion. Draw the centre 
lines in the cylinder timbers, as in Rule 1, then make 
a mark on this line with a black lead pencil at the 
point where it is intended the centre of the shaft is to 
come ; then measure 6 feet from this centre, each way 
on your line, and mark these points with a black lead 
pencil; then measure 8 feet each way from the centre 
point, out from the centre line, and then take a ten foot 
pole and try it to these points on the lines, and if they 
are more or less than the pole, bring the shaft line 
round at either end, keeping the line to the centre on 
the line fore and aft, and when you get two of these 
points to fit the length of the pole, the other two 
spaces will be the same length, and the lines will be 
square one with another. The centre line for the shafts 
will be equal, or parallel distances from the sheer plank, 
as in Rule 1, example for squaring of shafts. See plate. 

N. B. — Before the shafts are put into the pillar 



250 The Practical ENaiNEER. 

blocks, put a parallel straight edge across the two main 
pillar blocks on the top of the bottom brasses, and then 
some 2, 3 or 4 feet aft of the slides, put on another 
parallel straight edge across the top of the cylinder 
timbers, and see if these straight edges are out of twist 
on top ; and if not, plane a narrow place across the top 
of the cylinder timbers until they are out of twist, and 
this place will be a guide, after the shafts are in their 
place, to put your slides and cylinder lugs true, and 
level with the line through the centre of the shaft. 

Rule 3. — How to line cylinders and square shafts for 
side-wheel hoats^ with double engines. When the cylin- 
der timbers for both engines are each one parallel from 
a line through the centre of the boat, fore and aft, you 
will then stretch two centre lines through the cylinder 
timbers parallel or equal distances with each other, 
then stretch the centre line for the shafts across these 
parallel lines where it is intended the centre of the 
shafts are to come, and then proceed to square the shaft 
line with the cylinder line according to Rule 1, as laid 
down on page 248, or according to Rule 2, as found on 
page 249. 

Stern-wheel engines are squared in the same way as 
side-wheel boat engines are, when the timbers of the 
side-wheel boat are equal and parallel with each other, 
but not otherwise. 

Rule 4. — How to square shafts tvith cylinder timbers^ 
when the timbers are not loarallel with each other. 
We would here remark, that it is a common thing on 
side-wheel boats with double engines, to have the cylin- 
der timbers, at the water wheel, something like six 
inches narrower then they are at the cylinder, some- 



Miscellaneous. 251 

times more and sometimes less, as it may happen. 
We are opposed to this, for the following reason : The 
water wheels being turned several degrees out of square 
from a line drawn through the centre of the boat, they 
will not pull straight ahead, but lose power in propor- 
tion to the number of degrees it is out of square. 

Whether this be done intentionally, by the ship car- 
penter, or not, we cannot at present say. But there 
ire some who allege that it is better to be a little out of 
square, saying that it throws the water in on the rud- 
ier, thereby causing a stronger current against the 
'udder-blade ; and thus enable the pilot to steer the 
3oat more easily* We have also heard that it was ad- 
^'antageous in another respect. The boat is narrower 
It the stern, and the water being displaced by the 
vheel a little out of square j it is said causes the water dis- 
)laced by the boat to return more rapidly to fill the 
vacancy, and that this acts upon the stern or narrow 
)art of the boat in the same manner that any pressure 
^ould upon the narrow part of a wedge, thus assisting 
propel the boat* 

Our opinion is, notwithstanding these arguments^ 
hat the cylinder timbers should be parallel and the 
rater wheel square with a line through the centre of 
he boat; and then, if the rudder is constructed as it 
fiould be, the boat will be easily steered without any 
dditional assistance from the water wheels. 

But to square shafts with cylinder timbers that are 
ot parallel with each other, a line must be drawn 
irough each cylinder timber, and square each shaft 
•om its own line, according to Rule 1, as laid down on 
age 248, or as Rule 2, page 249. 



^52 The Practical Ekgineeu. 

Notwithstanding these t^vo shaft lines are not straight 
with each other, sideways across the boat, (the cause of 
which is the cylinder timbers not being parallel with 
each other,) yet they would be and are straight the 
other way, the line being equal distances from the sheer 
plank up. When re-Uning shafts, after the boat has 
been running awhile, it may be that one or the other 
side of the boat has settled, sometimes an inch more or 
less. In lining the shafts in this case, it is not neces* 
sary that they be equal distances from the sheer plank, 
so that the centres of each shaft are at parallel dis- 
tances from a line reaching across the boat which is 
parallel with the sheer planks ; and the shaft can be 
squared by a line running through the cylinder. This 
can be done by making a small centre mark with a file 
or cold chisel on both sides of the wrist in its centre, 
and turning over and trying fore and aft on your linC) 
and keying your pillar blocks one way or other until 
both these marks fit the line which passes through the 
cylinder. 

For getting the shaft in line the other way, or up and 
down : Stretch a line across the boat, from the centre 
each way ; that is, parallel from the sheer planks, straight 
on top, though not straight sideways. Let this line be 
some three, four or five feet above the top of the jour* 
nals or caps; then take two small strips of wood, J or f 
inch square, and let there be a difference in the lengths of 
these strips equal to half the distance there is between 
the collar on the large journal and that of the smaller 
one ; and then, if the long strip fits the collar on the 
small journal, and the short strip fits the collar on the 
large one, your shaft will be in line this way as well a3 



Miscellaneous. 253 

the other. AYe suggest it as the easiest plan to measure 
from the tops of the collars, as it answers every pur- 
pose, and also saves the trouble of taking the caps off 
the tops of the pillar blocks, Avhich would be a great 
deal of unnecessary trouble. 



BALANCE VALVE IN FORCE PUMPS. 

^' You will here find the explanation of the balance 
valve, (as laid down on page 212,) which was intended to 
have been put in, but was neglected. In presenting a 
draft of this pump, we did not intend it as fit for prac- 
tical use, but laid it dow^n out of curiosity — thinking, 
perhaps, it might act as a stimulus in exciting others 
to introduce something superior to the common force 
pump now in general use. This pump will work as well 
as any other now used, and the valve being nearly 
alanced, it is that much less weight for the plunger 
raise ; it falls easier into the seat, and when raised by 
he plunger going down, strikes much easier on the 
brce pump cap ; because the surface of the valve op- 
rated on by the plunger is less in these kinds of 
alves than in the valves in common use. The resist- 
nce on the plunger from the boilers in this pump, is 
he same as in the force pump now used, and the only 
ifference between the two at all, in working, would be 
he valve being nearly balanced, would be nearly the 
eight of itself less weight to be raised in throwing 
rater into the boilers. To balance a valve is one thing, 
nd to take the resistance caused by the pressure of the 
eam in the boilers, off the plunger, is another thing. 
22 



'254 The Practical Engineer. 

The balance valve in the force pump was not laid down 
here as intended for practical use ; it is more complica- 
ted and costly than the present force pump ; but we 
would ask the question, is it not possible for some one 
to introduce something superior to the present force 
pump : 

This passage is extracted from page 161 of the former 
edition of my book, published in 1853. Who knows but 
that the principle of the injector may have been suggest- 
ed by reading these words? At all events it is here 
suggested. The draft of the pump is on page 108 of 
the old book, and the same is on page 212 of this edition. 



WALLACE'S GOVERNOR. 

On page 264 is a draft of a governor, having a dou- 
ble frog, (marked A,) which was invented by the author 
of this book in the year 1853. This is the most simple 
in its construction of any we have ever seen, and what 
we claim as our invention is the double frog. This 
governor requires no points, and needs but one bolt for 
supporting each of the levers to which the balls are 
suspended for vibrating. On this account the friction 
is much less than that of the common governor, whilst 
the work of fitting it up is about one-half or less than 
that of the common one. A is the double frog ; the 
motion is given to the frog by the arm on which the 
governor balls are suspended, and from this same dou- 
ble frog A, the motion is given to the governor lever F, 
which connects and works the butterfly valve. B is the 
cast iron frame which is fastened to the upright shaft, 



JoJzTf Wa.lla.ces (roy^e^rrtor^ tSS3 



a 



o F 



===QB 




Jh^a,m'u !»/ Jdh,rv ^Urg/^ace . 



Miscellaneous, 255 

and on this shaft the double frog A vibrates up and 
down. C is the governor ball ; D is the governor pul- 
ley ; E is one of the mitre wheels that works the upright 
shaft; F is the governor lever; G is the step in which 
the upright shaft revolves; H is an arm cast on each 
side of the frame, having in them a groove in which the 
arm on which the ball is suspended moves, and also 
allows it to rise to any height necessary, owing to the 
length of the arms. 



STERN WHEEL STEAMERS WITH TWO WATER 

WHEELS. 

There w^as a large stern wheel boat built in Pitts- 
burgh, some years ago, having four cylinders and two 
water Avheels. The object was, to round-to the boat 
quicker than could be done with two cylinders and one 
wheel. They used a double engine to drive each of the 
wheels, so that they could make the wheels turn in op- 
posite directions at the same time. In this way they 
could round-to in less time, and iu a narrower channel, 
than those boats having only one water wheel. This 
Avorked very well and answered the intended purpose, 
however there were but few of this kind of boats built. 
I will state some objections to their coming into general 
use. They are too weighty, and this, too, on the stern 
of the boat. They require a double set of engineers. 
The cost is a great deal more to fit a boat out in this 
way, and the friction is increased in proportion to the 
additional amount of machinery ; and they are of no 
real advantage whatever, excepting making quicker 



256 The Practical Engineer. 

turns than could be done with the common double 
engine and single water wheel. I saw in Cincinnati, 
about 25 years ago, one that had three engines and 
three water wheels, which were built by my boss Gudloe 
& Co., Cincinnati, for the steamer Su'perior, She was 
intended to be a very fast running boat, but proved to 
be a failure. She had, I think, six large double flued 
boilers on board, one 24 inch cylinder about 6 feet 
stroke, and a lever engine working two side water wheels. 
She had also in the stern, two 12 inch cylinders, 4 feet 
stroke slide valves, working a large water wheel, making 
in all three wheels. I always thought the main cause 
of the failure of the speed of this boat was, that the 
stern and side wheels did not pull together. 



SPEED OF FLY WHEELS FOR GRIST MILLS, &c. 

One of the failures in some grist mills is owing to the 
fly wheel being too light and running too slow, so that 
the speed of the outer circumference of the stones out 
traveled that of the fly wheel rim, so that it caused the 
stones to backlash, and the mill would never work to 
good advantage. There were two reasons for this : one 
was the diameter of the fly wheel was too small, and the 
other was, the speed of the engine was too slow. In 
order for a grist mill to grind to good advantage, the 
fl[y wheel rim should always take the lead of the stones, 
by running about twenty-five per centage faster than 
the rim of the stones ; this used to be one of the secrets 
of getting up a good mill. I recollect of a person 
tellirg me of a certain mill that could not be made to 



Miscellaneous. 257 

work > to do any good on account of the backlashing of 
the stones, and after enlarging the diameter of the fly 
wheel, so as to out travel the stones, in order to keep 
ahead of them, they were not troubled any more with 
backlashing. This shows the necessity of having all 
the parts of a mill in proportion with each other. You 
may have the same boilers and size of engines, and the 
same weight of metal or more in the small fly wheel 
that there is in the large one, and it may cost the same 
price, or even more than the one with the large fly 
wheel; and owing to the lack not of power but of speed 
on account of the small diameter of the fly wheel the 
former would hardly be worth taking as a gift, if you 
were to be bound to keep it running. 

The product of the weight, diameter and num- 
)er of revolutions per minute of the fly wheel, should 
exceed at least by about twenty-five per cent that of the 
veight, diameter and revolutions of the stones. The 
ame rule will apply to grind-stones, counter fly wheels, 
)r any other large wheel intended to revolve rapidly. 

It is said that one horse will grind one bushel of wheat 

er hour, four horses four bushels per hour, eight horses 

ight bushels per hour, &c., &c., so that it would require 

,n eight horse power engine to grind eight bushels per 

our, twelve horse power engine to grind twelve bushels 

^r hour, &c. 



HE FORM OF AN ORDER FOR A STEAM ENGINE. 

Persons in ordering steam engines are not sufficient- 

definite to be understood in regard to particulars- 

90^ ' • ■ ' 



258 The Practical Engineer. 

and in handmg in their orders, to receive proposals for 
the building of the same, as a general thing, they are 
too vague. They are sometimes written in the follow- 
ing manner : 

'"Si7^ — I wish to know your price for a 14 inch cyl- 
inder, 4 feet stroke, with two boilers, 36 inches in 
diameter, 28 feet long. Put up at M'Keesport. 

'^ Please let me know your lowest. Yours in haste. 

Jas. Lowkie." 

Now, persons answering this letter may each have 
his own way of building such machinery. One may 
make it as light as he can, while another may make it 
heavy. Much depends in this case upon the principle 
of the man who is employed to construct the engine, 
whether he will come up to the mark, or whether the 
sizes must be specified and their fulfillment exacted at 
the hands of the builder. 

Now, the above order should be written thus : 

"Sir — I wish to know your price, and terms of pay- 
ment, for an engine of the following description: 14 
inch cylinder, 4 feet stroke, side valve, good plain fin- 
ish; main shaft about 13 or 14 feet between the jour- 
nals; journals to be 8 inches in diameter, with bottom 
brasses; flywheel 16 feet in diameter, rim 5000 lbs.; 
with two cylinder boilers, 36 inches in diameter and 
28 feet long, made of J inch iron; a governor and a 
cold water pump; well not more than 10 feet deep; 
we will want about twenty feet of well-pipe, 10 feet 
between cylinder timbers and boiler wall; to be ready 
by the middle of June, 1864." 

ANSWER. 

Terms as follows: half cash on contract, and the 
balance in two equal payments of ninety days each, 
with interest from date. 



Miscellaneous. 259 

To persons purchasing steam engines to go to Cali- 
fornia, Mexico, Pike's Peak, or to any other place out 
of the reach of engine machine shops, I would suggest 
the propriety of taking along with them certain parts 
of the engine which will be needed, and most likely to 
give out first. Necessary extras. — One set or more of 
grate hars ; extra liners for fire fronts ; liners for furnace 
doors, and doors ; man plates ; boiler arches and bolts 
for same. Also, one set of gauge cocks; one check and 
blow-ofi" valve, and seat for each; one pair cylinder 
cocks; one cock for force pump ; one flange cock leading 
from cistern to the heater; one oil globe; one pair of 
brasses for crank end of pitman; one pair of brasses 
for the hot and one for the cold water pump, or more, 
if necessary; four pairs brasses for the pendulum and 
slide valve links; one pair or more for cam rod joints; 
one set of brasses for the cam frame to work in; one 
set of liners for the shoving head jaws; side boxes and 
bottom brasses for the pillar blocks. If the square 
cam frame is used, you will need two pieces of cam frame, 
and one cam of cast iron; metallic packing for cylinder; 
packing yarn ; lead and ladle ; gum ; gasket paper ; 
iron borings and lead gaskets for man and hand-hole 
plates ; also, lead gaskets for force pump, and check and 
blow-off valve chamber caps. Also, a few extra joint 
bolts, of different sizes ; three or four sharp picks, for 
cleaning the lime scales off the inside of the boilers and 
flues. Also, one or more chains to rub around the flues, 
to assist in cleaning them ; sal ammoniac ; a few cement- 
ing irons to make joints ; also, one or two chipping 
hammers ; three or four cold chisels, and two or three 
gauges ; one sledge, one vice, one anvil, and one pair of 



260 The Practical Exgixeer. 

bellows, with the necessary tools : callipers, tongs, &c.; 
fire irons — one poker, one rake, one crow foot, to haul 
out clinkers ; one crooked poker, for clearing out ashes 
and clinkers between the grate bars from below ; one or 
more shovels ; one damper for each flue ; brooms for 
sweeping out the flues ; all necessary wrenches, with 
one or two extra monkey wrenches ; oil cans, oil, tallow 
and beeswax, &c. &c. I throw out these suo:o:estions 
for the beneflt of the purchaser, to post him up and let 
him know what extra items will be necessarv. 

Men who understand their business know what extras 
will be needed, and those who do not know can find out 
by reading: these suororestions. No doubt I have named 
more extras than will generally be wanted, and I also 
may have omitted some few. This depends a good deal 
upon the kind of an engine you get. Some will require 
more extras than others. I would always advise the 
purchaser to consult with the engine builder as to what 
amount of extras will be necessary, as every engine 
builder is likely to know, better than any one else, the 
weak parts of his engines, if there be any, and what 
will be most likely to wear or give out first, and require 
to be replaced anew. Another mistake I would correct. 
Persons who have gotten engines and are living at a 
distance, think that when any thing is wanted, all 
they have to do is to send for the articles, without giving 
any size or particulars whatever. And when you ask 
them for the particulars every way, they will answer by 
telling you the engine was made at your shop, &c., and 
you must have the patterns, not knowing, at the same 
time, that you may have a dozen or twenty difi'erent 
patterns, nearly all the same size, &;c. I generally tell 



Miscellaneous. 261 

them I will not make any thing for them unless I have all 
the sizes, and am sure that I am right — if I make it, 
that it will be at their risk, and not mine. I throw out 
these hints also, so that persons at a distance may not 
depend too much on the engine builder, but get before- 
hand such extras as will likely be necessary hereafter, 
&c. For example, a man, in writing for a pair of pit- 
man brasses, may think it a very small matter, but 
there are a good many measures necessary : the diame- 
ter and length of the journal — also, the width of the 
pitman straps and the space between, and the probable 
thickness of the boxes — and a mistake or neglect of 
any one of these measures will be a sufficient cause for 
not making it. Hence the necessity, when sending 
an order for anything whatever, to give all the par- 
ticulars. If for gauge cocks or cylinder cocks, send 
the size at the poinfc and the number of threads to 
the inch; or, rub the bolt on a piece of paper, and 
it will show its own thread. 

Where the engine is to be put up within a convenient 
distance of the machine shop, few extras will be needed, 
say a few grate bars, one pair pitman brasses, ditto 
brasses, brass liner for shoving head jaws, and a few 
link brasses — packing yarn, material for joints, and a 
few joint bolts, oil cans, &c. &c. 

Persons about contracting for steam engines, and 
soliciting estimates from engine builders, should be ex- 
act in their descriptions of the power they require. To 
such persons these directions will be useful. Along 
with the horse power, get also the diameter of the cylin- 
der and length of stroke ; also, the kind of boiler, the 
diameter and length and thickness of the same. These 



262 The Pkactical Enghneer. 

are items of the greatest importance to know. There 
are other items, of less importance, which it would be to 
your interest to know — for instance, the diameter and 
length of the main shaft — also, the diameter and weight 
of the fly wheel, &c. ; then, when you have got all your 
estimates in, comparing your notes or estimates one with 
the other, and then choose the largest cylinder and 
boiler that is rated at the lowest number of horse power, 
providing the builder is one whose work is known to 
give general satisfaction, and the prices are suitable. 



HOW TO PUT UP AN ENGINE. 

In setting up an engine, it is customary with many 
to put the centres of the cylinder slides and of the 
main shaft all in line with each other. If everything 
would remain as when first put up, this would be exactly 
right. The engine will then start from off each centre 
at equal distances from each end of the slides. But 
there is another thing to be taken into' the account. 
Suppose the bottom brass of the pillar block to be one 
and a half inches thick, when new, and to wear down 
one inch, which would leave it half an inch thick ; in this 
case, if the centres of the cylinder slides and shaft 
w^ere in line when first put up, then the shaft w^ould be 
one inch below the centre when the bottom brasses 
would be worn out: hence the necessity, when setting up 
a new engine, to have the centre of the main shaft as 
much above the centre of the slides and cylinder, as the 
half of the wear of the brasses would be when worn 
out, Avhich would be half an inch. Then the centre oi 



Miscellaneous. 263 

the shaft when the engine is first put up would be half 
an inch above the centre of the cylinder and slides, and 
half an inch below the same when the brasses are worn 
out. I am well aware that when the engine is on the 
after dead centre, and the shaft a half inch above the 
centre of the slides, the engine would come over easier 
from this centre than it would go out from the opposite 
centre; because, when the engine is on this inner dead 
centre, the shaft is half an inch above the centre, so 
that if the steam was given here on the centre, the en- 
gine would not move until the wrist in the crank was 
turned below the centre. The extra half inch is more 
than would be necessary if the engine was on the centre. 
This is the conclusion : the centre of the main shaft 
should always be above the centre of the slides and 
cylinder, equal to half the wear in the bottom brasses 
when worn out. When the engine is new it will require 
the piston, when going out on the lower centre, to be a 
little farther over on the slides than it would require on 
the other end, when coming over on the upper centre ; and 
when the main shaft settles below the centre by wearing, 
it would then be the reverse at the other end of the 
slides. N. B. Some may say half an inch above and 
below the centre is a good deal, but these are the ex- 
treme points. The shaft is gradually approaching the 
centre as the brasses wear ; when past the centre it sinks 
below it until it reaches the other extreme. This is the 
best that can be done. 

There are other engines where the bottom brasses are 
not more than | of an inch thick when new, so that the 
centre of the shaft in this case would not be more than 
i of an inch above or below the centre of the cylinder 



264 The Practical Engineer. 

and slides at any time, but most of the time it would be 
nearer, and at a certain time it would be exactly in the 
centre. There is no cure for this but what would be 
worse than the disease itself. It has been tried here on 
large rolling mill engines, to keep the shaft always up 
to the centre by having the bottom of the pillar blocks 
and bed plates planed up and fitted, and keys put 
between them to raise the blocks up as the shaft wears 
the brasses down, but they were very difficult to be kept 
in order this way, and I believe this plan has been aban- 
doned. And on board of steam boats it would be 
impossible, on account of the wear of the brasses, to 
keep the shafts always in line, unless you would keep 
lowering your cylinder and slides on the timbers as the 
brasses wear, and let the shaft down, or else you would 
have to raise the pillar blocks up with gasket paper, or 
something else. The main thing is to keep the centre 
of the cylinder and slides exactly in line with each 
other, and always let the centre of the main shaft be 
one-half the thickness of the wear of the brasses above 
the centre of the cylinder and slides, when new. 

I would add, that it would be an easy matter, if the 
bottom brasses were made flat on the bottom, and 
fitted between two pillars, to raise the brasses and put 
iron backing below them, same as is put in behind pit- 
man brasses. This would only do where the bottom and 
top brasses are half circles, but it would not answer 
where side boxes are used, and ihey are generally used 
on large horizontal engines, so that the old plan I 
have alluded to, with all its inconveniences, is the very 
best that can be adopted. It has worked well — it still 
works well, and will ever continue to do the same. It 
is an old saying, let well enough alone. 



Miscellaneous. 265 



A CHARGE TO OVERSEERS OF ESTABLISHiVlEiMTS 
USING STEAM POWER. 

As damage is frequently done by the breaking of 
machinery^ and the bursting of pipes, fee, and this 
mostly from neglect, I propose to give some directions 
both to engineers and overseers of establishments using 
steam. The very fact of the engineer knowing that 
the boss is posted up in this matter, will make him 
doubly careful to guard against accidents. Something 
of this kind appears to me to be necessary, to stir up 
both engineers and bosses to a sense of their duty. 
And if the boss is posted up on the matter, and the 
engineer not, and the boss should feel delicacy in telling' 
him what was his duty, he could recommend him to get 
^^ Wallace's Practical Engineer," and read page 265 
until he becomes acquainted with this part of his duty. 

The following supposed conversation between the boss 
and the engineer, on Saturday evening just before quit- 
ting, will explain what I mean; 

Boss. '' Stop, engineer. Have you let the water all 
out of the different parts of the engine— both ends of 
the cylinder, the heater, the hot and cold water pumps 
and pipes, cistern, steam chest, &c.? and have you 
raised the throttle valve a little, so that the steam may 
blow through the cylinder, and not burst the steam pipe 
nor throttle valve chambers? have you slacked up the 
fire under the boilers, &c.?" 

Engineer. ''No, sir, it is not cold, it is thawing; it 
is of no use, there is no danger, boss, not the least." 

Boss. ^'I did not ask you whether it was cold or 
23 



266 The Practical ENaiKEER. 

thawing, and I want you to go back and do as I bid 
you; I pay you for your work, and you have a right to 
obey my orders/' 

Engineer. ^^Well boss, if you say so, I suppose I 
will have to do as you say." 

He goes back and does as the boss told him. 

Monday morning, weather extremely cold. 

Boss. ''Well engineer, is it thawing now or is it 
cold?" 

Engineer. "Cold! bitter cold.'* . 

Boss. ''Was I not right in the directions I gave 
you on Saturday night?" 

Engineer. "You were right, boss, who would have 
thought it! I never dreamt of such a change in the 
weather." 

Boss. " That is nothing new in this country. I have 
seen it frequently raining or thawing on Saturday even- 
ing, and on Sabbath morning or next day the wind 
would change and it would blow up to be desperately 
cold, so that by Monday morning everything would be 
frozen stiff. Now, engineer, I tell you there are num- 
bers of mills around here, whose owners, for want of 
being posted up as we have been, and not using the pre- 
cautionary measures we have done, are paying dearly 
for their negligence of duty to-day. One has burst a 
pump, others have broken a pendulum shaft, others a 
pump arm or pendulum, &c. This proves the proverbs 
to be true, 'an ounce of prevention is as good as a 
pound of cure,* and ' a stitch in time saves nine.' I have 
no doubt there is more damage done for want of think- 
ing or considering, than from any other cause." 

In cold weather, after the engine is stopped, the en- 



Miscellaneous. 267 

girieer skould, before retiring, open the necessary cocks, 
to let the water out, so as to prevent damage by freezing, 
and also to take out the necessary set screws, for the 
same purpose. As engineers are in a hurry to be off as 
soon as possible after bell ringing, they do not care 
about taking time to take out the set screws, especially 
if the wrenches should be mislaid, whereas, had there 
been small cocks instead of set screws, they would stop 
and open them, as it could be done in an instant ; and 
no engine can be said to be complete without stop cocks 
instead of set screws, &c. It would be much better to 
take an hour or two to thaw the pumps and pipes, if 
necessary, than to start up in a hurry and break down, 
and have to stop several days or weeks, as the case may 
be, besides contracting more or less of a bill. When 
persons are detained unexpectedly in this way, they are 
very apt to become excited and impatient, and on this 
account they sometimes do a large amount of damage, 
that would have been avoided had they kept cool and 
taken their time to see that, every thing was clear before 
starting. 

In heating up an engine, especially in cold weather, 
it should be done very gradually, as there is great 
danger of breaking in frosty weather, by heating up 
suddenly, before the frost is entirely out of all parts of 
the engine. Engineers frequently, when starting the 
engines in frosty weather, are in too much of a hurry, 
before they are sure that the ice is all thawed out of the 
pumps, pipes, &c., and in this way they sometimes do a 
great deal of damage. I would recommend the plan of 
turning the fly wheel round once or twice by hand, 
before letting the steam on suddenly ; and those engines 



f 



268 The Practical Ekgixeer. 

that are too large to turn by hand, unship the pendulum 
and work it by hand, if there is any doubt about the 
ice bein2^ entirely thawed. I knew an instance, a short 
time ago, of a large engine where the force pump was 
frozen up. They had fire around it for some time, and 
supposed it was thawed. The engine was too large to 
turn by hand. Thev srave the ens^ine the steam, and as 
it had almost come over the centre, it broke the pendu- 
lum. The enorineer told me he thought that the break 
was occasioned by some pieces of ice falling down from 
the sides of the pump, under the plunger. This is why 
I spoke of turning the wheel round twice to make a 
more sure thinfr of it. I have trouble enoucrh when I 
am careful, and I do not wish to add to my troubles by 
right down carelessness, and in addition to all this, con- 
tract a bill of unnecessary expenses. 



CAUTION AGAINST FREEZING IN WINTER. 

Frost, as well as heat, is one of the most powerful 
elements in nature, and it is not enough that great care 
should be taken that there is not a scarcity of water or 
an extra degree of heat, but that the boilers are not 
bursted by the frost. About the year 1849 we had the 
job of replacing a boiler head that had been bursted by 
the frost. This boiler was used at a pork house, and 
happening to be full of water, froze solid, and burst the 
head completely out, leaving the rim fast by the rivets 
to the boiler hull. How many other boilers have been 
burst in the same way, it is not for us to say, but every 
one knows that there is more or less damage done every 



Miscellaneous. 269 

year by the frost, such as the bursting of cylinders ; fol- 
lowers breaking in the piston head, by the freezing of 
the packing; stuffing boxes on the fast cylinder head, 
from the same cause. The force pump and other stuff- 
ing boxes, are liable to burst from the same way when 
hard screwed up, with wet packing. (In extreme cold 
weather, it would be a good plan to slacken the nuts on 
the stuffing box bolts ; and if the engine is very much 
exposed to the weather, it would be advisable to draw 
out the packing altogether.) Steam chest lids by the 
steam chest filling with water from the condensed steam ; 
bursting of throttle valve chambers ; bursting of force 
pumps, hollow plungers, breaking of pump arms, shafts 
and pendulum arms from the same cause. Also, side 
pipes, copper or iron steam and supply pipes, cold water 
pumps, check valve chambers, boiler stand pipes, mud 
and supply receivers, cold water cisterns, &c. Every- 
thing containing cold water is liable to burst. A short 
time ago we made a new cylinder to replace one that 
was split in two halves from end to end, having been 
froze solid with water in it; and whilst writing this book 
I was informed that the steamer North Bend burst her 
cylinder in the same way; it was 16 inches diameter, 
6 feet stroke. She had been laying up at Wheeling 
during a spell of cold w^eather, and when they raised 
steam for the purpose of putting out, as soon as they 
let on the steam into the cylinder, to use as I heard it 
the engineer's own words, the cylinder opened out like a 
bean pod. We built this engine, and something like 
tAventy years or more have passed away before I was 
made acquainted with this fact. I never dreamt of its 
having burst from this cause, the common report was 
23* 



270 The Practical Engineer^ 

that it was burst from foul play. The report was cur- 
rent that it was caused by water in the cylinder ; but 
the true cause was for a long time kept concealed. I 
recollect of hearing of another cylinder of our buildj 
making three in all having been burst by frost ; and 
how many other cylinders have been burst in the same 
way, it is not for me to say, as no one knows the num- 
ber. In some instances, it would be a good plan to take 
out the pump and cylinder cocks, and slack oif the loose 
cylinder head, for the following reason: where the fires 
under the boilers are slacked up and the steam is a long 
time cooling down, and the cylinder exposed and the 
weather very cold, and the cocks and openings in the 
same being very small, no doubt the opening in the 
cocks would freeze solid, and thus the water made by 
condensed steam is retained in the cylinder, and is thus 
suffered to freeze up solid, and the result is that the 
cylinder will be most likely to burst. I mention these 
things to put the thoughtless and inconsiderate upon 
their guard. 

These things which every one in the business knows 
occur almost by wholesale every year, are caused by 
the frost, and nineteen cases out of twenty could have 
been avoided by a little forethought. For example, by 
having the engine in a house well closed in from the in- 
clemency of the weather, there would be but few nights 
so cold as to require letting the water off the pumps, 
cylinders, &c., except on Saturdays, where the engine 
stands over a day and has time to ccol down. 

It is almost a universal thing, during cold weather, 
for something to be broken on Monday, caused by freez- 
ing between Saturday and Monday; and what has hap- 



Miscellaneous. 71 

pened may occur again, unless some precautionary 
measures are adopted. Now, we would recommend 
having the hollow plunger so tight as not to admit any 
water. (One of our most serious objections to the hol- 
low plunger is their leaking at the bolt hole in the 
bottom.) Let the water out of the force and cold water 
pumps, and if the supply pipe to the boiler is below the 
force pump, have some way of letting the water out of 
it, and have a frost hole in the side of the steam chest, 
with a set screw, so that it may be taken out whenever 
there is danger from freezing; also the keys of large 
stop cocks, for water pipes from cisterns and other 
places where they may be used, should be taken out, as 
a very slight frost sometimes easily destroys both the 
keys and cocks. Many pendulum shafts and pump 
arms have been broken by starting the engines with 
more or less ice in the pumps. These things ought not 
to be allowed. A word to the wise is suflBcient. 

In conclusion, if small cocks were put into the differ- 
ent places for draining the ATater off the different parts 
of the engine instead of set screws, there is no doubt 
but that there would be fewer accidents occur than do, 
because an engineer could open a dozen cocks in less 
time than he would sometimes be in taking out one set 
screw ; and where there is a number of set scrcAvs to 
take out, and perhaps different wrenches necessary to fit 
the same, in case of one or more of them being mislaid 
or taken away, as they often are; the engineer having 
no particular interest at stake, puts off in a hurry, neg- 
lecting to do what he considered as his duty to do and 
would have done had there been stop cocks used instead 
of set screws, and the result is, in this way there is a 



272 The Practical Engineer. 

large amount of damage done every year, which is a 
continual tax upon the establishment, which might and 
should be avoided were the necessary preca^itions used. 



GRATE BARS AND BEARERS. 

There is scarcely any part about the construction of 
the steam engine more troublesome and more expensive 
to keep in repair and good order than the grate bars, 
on account of their burning out so soon, and their liabil- 
ity to fall out when the engine is in motion and all 
hands at work, and on this account there is a great deal 
of time and labor lost. 

There is a great variety of grate bars in use ; single, 
double and treble, varying in length from six down to 
two feet long. The sizes generally used are three, 
three and a half and four feet long. As a general 
thing they are straight on top, and some are made one 
or more inches rounding on top; one object of this was, 
when burning wood it was easier to shake up the fires, 
as the wood would roll on the bars, another object was 
to prevent them from bagging down in the middle. In 
plate C, on page 272 you have a side view of the grate 
bar A, which is a good bar for this reason : the back 
end is beveled for the purpose of keeping the ashes from 
settling in between the end of the grate bars and the 
back bar bearer, which would prevent the expansion of 
the grate bars when hot from forcing back the back 
grate bar bearer, as you will see on page 272. 

But to make a more complete job, it might be beveled 
on both ends, as is shown on the front end of the grate 



Miscellaneous. 273 

bar A, and on the back end of the grate bar E, and 
also on both ends of the grate bars F, G and H, or 
otherwise there would be danger from the expansion of 
the bars on account of the ashes crow^ding between the 
front end of the bars and bearer. 

B is a very good bar ; much better than the one 
above, because it has a short rib cast on the front end 
made to fit easy in a groove, which is cast on the front 
grate bar bearer ; this holds the grate bars stationary at 
the front end, the back end of the bar rests on a plain 
flat piece of iron and is not moved by the expansion of 
the grate bars. The bridge wall may be built two or 
three or more inches back beyond the end of the grate 
bars, so as to allow a little space between the end of the 
grate bars and the bridge wall for the ashes, so that 
they may not be crowded so hard by the expansion of 
the grate bars, as to force the bridge wall back. 

C, the back bearer, is also better on account of flang- 
ing down on the bridge wall, which makes it a more 
permanent job. 

D is a side view of a single bar made from 6 to 8 
inches wide, cast on its side, full of holes about two inches 
round, for the purpose of letting the air pass through to 
keep the bars cool and prevent them from springing. 
There have been a good many of these bars made, but 
they never have come into general use. 

The grate bar D and bearers are the very best that 
have been got up. The front grate bar bearer is about 
24 inches wide; in front of the fire front there is a 9 
inch wall of fire brick, and beyond this wall about 5 
inches, is a recess three inches deep to receive a fire 
brick lining 9 inches wide in a bed of fire clay or mor- 



274 The Practical Engineer. 

tar. The object of keeping the grate bars so far back. 
is to save the cast iron liners and fire doors in the fire 
front, which so often burn out, and the air being ex- 
cluded by the course of brick in the bearing bars, the 
fire will not be so hot nor hard on the liners and fire 
front as it would if the grate bars were close up to the 
liners, and admitted the air. It is also the intention 
when using these wide bearing bars, in front of the 
boiler, to pitch the coal or fuel back on the grate bars 
as much as possible, and not suffer the fuel to be crowded 
up close to the liners, which would be sure to burn them 
out. The back bearing bar is also made on an improved 
plan. The plate is made so as to receive a 9 inch 
bridge wall in front of the plate, which runs up on the 
back side of the wall as high as the top of the brick of 
the bridge wall. This holds the wall up, and there is a 
recess in this plate to receive the grate bars, and the 
back of the recess is intended to be built close up to the 
bridge wall, so as to hold it more securely to its place. 

E is a draft of a grate bar which is marked had ; the 
front end is all right, yet the bar being square at the 
back end, and the bearing bar narrower, without any 
lower flange to lap over on the bridge wall, the ashes, 
when the bars shrink, settle in between the space, and 
when the bars expand by heating, it forces the bearer 
back nearly equal to the shrinkage every time they are 
heated, save what the ashes would compress, and every 
time they cool they fill up anew in the same way, and 
every time they are heated up they expand, and keep 
shoving back the bearing bar by degrees, until they shove 
it from under the grate bars, and this accounts for the 
frequent falling down of the grate bars. We ourselves 



^ 

s 





1 


S 






— 1 


\ 


r 



u 



■5315^ 




<?> 






/o 


/o 


p 


p 


p 


Os 


O 


O 


P 


P 


o 


\o 




Bar?' Brr/rers- 



MiSCELLAKEOtJS* 275 

hare been very much annoyed in this way by the bars 
falling down when the hands were all at work, and the 
engine in full blast, and we would often have to stop 
in the middle of our work and haul out the fires, and 
put in the grate bars before we could go ahead again. 

F is a very bad bar ; there being no catch on the 
front end of the bars, nor recess in the bearers, they 
will fall out in one half the time of the above^ as the 
ashes crowd in at both ends of the bars* 

G is a worse plan, because the grate bar bearer is 
cast on the fire fronts, and on account of not having it 
lined with brick, it makes it disagreeably hot for the 
fireman, and the fire front burns out immediately, almost 
as soon as the grate bars. 

H is the worst of all plans for the construction of 
grate bars and bearers ; is the same in this as iii Cj it 
is cast on the fire front, which crowds the fire close to 
the casting and burns out the fire front, and the back 
end of the grate bar is laid on the bricks. A fire front 
and grate bars put up in this way will be sure always to 
give trouble, and be a constant bill of expense to keep 
in repair, besides the loss of time, disappointment of 
hands, customers, dead capital, &c. 

I is a bar similar to the one in the other plate on 
page 272j with a single row of holes, the object of which 
was to prevent the bars from getting red hot, by allow-* 
ing a circulation of cold air to pass through them. 
They are seldom used ; they were tried more as an ex^ 
periment than any thing else, but are not equal to the 
bars 2!:enerallv used. 

J is a patent grate bar, which works on a pin at the 
back end. The bar is straight sideways, without any 



276 The Peactical Engineer. 

strips cast on the sides, so that they can be shovect from 
side to side at the front end, to let the clinkers fall 
through; then the bars are set as near as possible at 
their proper distance by the fireman. This kind of bar 
is used only where they burn stone coal. The pin is a 
new thing, but the plan of shifting the bars from side 
to side, is the same way as far back as I can recollect* 
They had side jogs cast on the back end and none on 
the front, and these were shifted in the same way the 
patent bars are, and for the very same purpose, with 
this difference: these having no pins in, greater care 
was necessary in spreading them apart and in bringing 
them together. I was informed by the head engineer 
of the steamer Advance No, 2, that their grate bars fell 
out about a dozen times during a short trip from Pitts- 
burgh to Parkersburg and back, and twice during the 
trip they had to stop to haul out the fires to put up the 
bars. He told me that the back bearing bar was not 
made right, it should have had a flange cast on it to 
come down on the inside of the fire bed in the ash pit, 
and then have several long tie bolts reaching through 
it made fast to the fire front. I told him that would not 
do ; the bars should be fast at one end and have room 
to come and go at the other, as you see on the grate 
bars C and E, page 272. 



DOUBLE ACTING FORCE PUMP. 

Ko. 1 presents a side view of a double acting force 
pump, which is sometimes used instead of two pumps, 
the common mode for steam engines which are not sup- 



^K/ 




End \l[fVi^o/valvre^ f/ianib£r ^e^on^ 



(ap for force piwip. 



Miscellaneous. 277 

plied by overhead water from water works or otherwise 
which require but one force pump. C is a double valve 
chamber. The cold water is drawn from the well 
through valve No. 2, and discharged through valve No. 
S into the cistern and reservoir. The double valve 
chamber D draM^s the hot water from the heater through 
the valve No, 4, and discharges it through th.e valve No, 
5 into the boiler. In the construction of these pumps, 
it is necessary to have the upper valve chamber large 
enough to let the lower valves pass down through the 
upper ones. The depth of these lower valves and seats 
makes it very hard to get at the valves and seats to 
grind and keep them in repair. They are also very 
complicated ; I have known of numbers of them being 
used and they did not give satisfaction, and in some in- 
stances, I believe, they have been displaced and others 
used in their stead. 



NOMINAL HORSE POWER, 

Of all the absurd terms to be met with in the vo- 
cabulary of mechanical arts, that of ''nominal horse 
power" is perhaps the most absurd. Particular meas- 
ures and weights bear, very properly, individual appel- 
lations, which, if not invariable in their meaning in a 
general sense, are so in particular instances, Thus^ 
the term ''pound," individually, does not, it is true, 
invariably denote one certain measure of the force of 
gravitation; diiferent merchants employing it in various 
senses, according to the kind of trade they carry on. 
The pound of the jeweler is one thing; that of the 
24 



278 The Practical Ekgineer. 

corn merchant another. Yet the troy weight of the 
one can never be confounded with the avoirdupois weight 
of the other. The phrases "troj weight'' and "apoth- 
ecaries' weight" are understood throughout the length 
and breadth of the kingdom, and are rarely, if ever, 
confounded with each other. Measures of length are 
still more definite. A foot is equally a foot with the 
carpenter and the engineer, the worker in stone and the 
worker in iron, all over the kingdom. A two foot rule 
which can be used in London is equally serviceable in 
Manchester and Liverpool, Hull or Glasgow. Our en- 
gines are bought and sold at the rate of so much per 
nominal horse power; and it is certainly strange, con- 
sidering the enormous sums which annually change 
hands in the trade, that there should be no fixed and 
definite meaning in the expression. Not only does it 
convey no idea whatever of the power of any steam 
engine, but it fails equally in expressing size. Were 
this all, its use might be pardonable; but, on examina- 
tion, we find that nearly every centre of manufacturing 
industry attaches a special value to it, different to that 
which obtains elsewhere ; a nominal horse power mean- 
ing one thing at Leeds, another thing at Glasgow, and 
something else at London ; even diiferent makers em- 
ploying the phrase in distinctive senses, according to 
their individual proclivities. 

During the first few years of his career as an engine 
builder. Watt adhered almost exclusively to one partic- 
ular speed of piston per minute, only departing from it 
in exceptional cases, when engines were constructed out 
of the usual routine of the shops. He was not long in 
business, however, until he discovered that the term 



Miscellaneous. 279 

'^lorse power" conveyed too vague an idea to answer 
the purposes of a vastly extended trade. He accord- 
ingly instituted some experiments at one of the London 
breweries with the largest and strongest horses which 
he could obtain. A finely- turned brass pulley was affix- 
ed to the edge of a well; over this pulley a carefully 
made rope was run, one end descending the well, where 
it was attached to weights, altered as occasion required, 
while the other end was drawn forward by a horse, 
which thus raised the weight. From the results obtain- 
ed from this, and some other experiments, Watt deter- 
mined the power of a strong horse to be equal to a 
weight of 33,000 pounds, raised one foot in one minute; 
the horse being capable of maintaining this exertion 
for eight hours per day. This was the highest average 
obtained from the most powerful horses. Watt's first 
boilers were worked at an extremely low pressure, not 
more than 2 pounds or 3 pounds on the square inch 
above the atmosphere. His machinery was not very 
perfect ; and the pressure on the pistons of his earlier 
engines seldom exceeded 10 pounds on the square inch. 
Newcomen's engines had an available pressure of not 
more than 7 pounds or 8 pounds on the inch. Those 
who bought from the Soho firm, could scarcely be in- 
duced to believe in the possibility of obtaining anything 
much over this ; and as there was a doubt amongst the 
public, Watt gave them the benefit of it ; and determin- 
ing that his customers should receive even more than 
they bargained for, he magnanimously adopted the 
highest possible standard of horse power, and the lowest 
of steam pressure; and thus the Soho nominal horse 
power was measured by a piston moving at a speed of 



280 The Practical Engineer. 

128 feet per minutej under a pressure of but 7 pounds 
to the square inch. Other firms^ however, quickly 
started into existence, who found it expedient to depart 
both from Watt's standards of speed and pressure, and 
in consequence diflferent estimates of nominal horse 
power were adopted in different districts, and continue 
in force at the present moment. The standards adopted 
are, in many instances, simply ridiculous. Thus, at 
Leeds, a nominal horse power means 30 circular inches 
of piston area, without regard to either speed or pres- 
sure; while at Manchester 23 square inches are regard- 
ed as the proportion. The weight of a fly-wheel, or 
the thickness of a cylinder, might be selected as meas- 
ures of the actual work performed with equal propriety. 
In Glasgow and London, pressure is employed as the 
standard ; the mercantile value of a steam engine being 
calculated by an assumed pressure of 7J pounds to the 
squar3 inch at the former place, and 7 pounds at the 
latter, the regulation piston speeds being settled by em- 
pirical rules which bear little or no relation to practical 
results. Those adopted by the Admirailty may be 
selected as an example. The speed is supposed to vary 
with the stroke. With a 4 feet stroke the piston speed 
calculated on is 196 feet ; with 5 feet stroke, 210 feet ; 
with a 6 feet stroke, 228 feet ; with a 7 feet stroke, 231 
feet ; with an 8 feet stroke, 240 feet per minute, and so 
o^n. It is almost needless to say that these velocities 
are seldom or never really adhered to. The average 
pressure maintained in the boilers of our Navy may be 
taken somewhere about 18 pounds to the square inch. 
If to this we add 12 pounds for vacuum, and deduct 4 
pounds for wire-drawing and loss, the actual working 



Miscellaneous. 281 

pressure per square inch of piston becomes nearly three 
times the nominal pressure. It is thus that the indi- 
cated power of marine and other engines exceeds the 
nominal many times. How many, depending, in a 
great degree, on the good faith of the firm contracting 
for the machinery and not at all on the stipulations of 
the contract ! There are various instances in our Navy 
and mercantile marine where similar ships attain very 
different velocities with engines of the same nominal 
horse power, made by different firms ; the speed depend- 
ing not on the nominal but on the indicated power. 
Setting the general public aside, we thus find that the 
Government, by purchasing engines at the rate of so 
much per nominal horse power, place themselves com- 
pletely in the hands of the manufacturers. The naval 
architect may calculate that 2,000 effective horse power 
is sufficient to drive a particular ship at a certain speed. 
Engines of 400 horse power nominal are ordered, in 
the expectation that they will work up to the required 
power. Whether they do or not rests with the makers. 
If they develop a force of 1,200 horses only, the de- 
signer of a ship is disappointed, but no blame can at- 
tach to the makers of the machinery. There are en- 
gines at this moment in the Navy giving out eight times 
their nominal power ; many others only three ; the first 
cost of the machinery being as nearly as possible the 
same in both cases. It is not strange, when we consid- 
er these things, that so many of our ships have failed to 
realize the speeds predicted for them. 

A simple remedy exists for this state of affairs. Let 
the purchaser stipulate how many indicated horse power 
he requires, and pay for his engines by that standard. 
24* 



282 The Practical E^ai^^TEER. 

Such a coarse would be foimdj in the long run, beneficial 
to all parties. Many firms are at present excluded 
from the Admiralty work because their reputation is not 
established; and the Government, haying no check over 
them under existing arrangements of purchase and sale, 
fear to employ them, lest the indicated should not suffi- 
ciently exceed the nominal horse power. The sooner 
steam engines are bought and sold by real instead of 
ideal standards, the better. The words ^' horse power"' 
are seldom or never used in connection with the locomo- 
tive ; yet purchasers always get exactly what they want^ 
Imaginary and arbitrary measures of either size, capac- 
ity, or power, are certain to lead the unwary and inex- 
perienced astray, and are unsuitable to the advancement 
of the age. — Eng. Mechanies Magazine. 

The following sensible comments on the same subject 
are from the London Engineer : 

^'At present not less than six difierent rules are adopted 
in difierent pla' es, ^nd by difierent makers, nearly all 
giving difieren' res^ .Its ; thus, strange as it may seem, in 
Glasgow an f ngin . is not the same power that it is ic 
Leeds or Lr ndon Mr. Fairbairn calculates the power oi 
his engine by '^ multiplying the area of the piston by 7 
lbs. the s luare iuch, and by 240, the speed of the piston 
in feet y er mi .ute." The Admiralty rale is, "multiply 
the sqr are c/ the diameter of the piston in inches, by 
its ve] jcity in feet per minute, which must be as fol- 
lows: For a 4 feet stroke, 196 feet per minute; for s 
5 fef t st oke, 210 feet per minute ; for 6 feet stroke, 
222 fee' ; for 7 feet stroke, 231 feet ; for 8 feet stroke, 
24C fe jt per minute, and divide the result by 6,000.'' 
3Bc alt ;n ai^d "Watt's formula is 33,000 lbs. raised 1 foo' 



Miscellaneous. 283 

in a minute ; but, strange as these rules may seem, they 
yield to the Leeds, Manchester and Glasgow rules, 
which are at the first place to allow sixteen circular 
inches, at the second ten square inches, and at the last 
ten circular inches of piston area per nominal horse 
power ; these last rules at least show the most delightful 
simplicity if they have no other merit ; but we might as 
well try to calculate the power of an engine from the 
diameter of the piston rod or the weight of the fly 
wheeL The Persia's engines, with 10 feet stroke and 
101 inch cylinders, are called 818 horse power. While 
the Warrior 8^ with 112 inch cylinders^ which, deduct- 
ing the 41 inch trunk, are about equal to 103 inches, 
are call 1,260 horse power, though they have but 4 feet 
stroke ; and we would not weary our readers by heaping 
up instances to prove what we believe is pretty well 
known, that the term ^'nominal horse power" is useless 
and unexpressive, and it is in vain to say that a stand- 
ard is necessary when we are at this moment doing very 
well without one. No engineer can tell from the mere 
size alone, of an engine, what its power may be. All 
the purchaser requires to know are the actual dimen- 
sions of his engine and boiler, and the quality of the 
fuel he is about to employ, in order to calculate what 
amount of work it is capable of performing. It is thus 
that locomotives are bought and sold without the use of 
any such absurd term, the use of which must often lead 
to confusion in the mind of the purchaser^ who is sel- 
dom very well up in these matters. Its use gives an 
opening to the fraudulent dealer. In an engineering 
point of view no such term is necessary, and the present 
multiplicity of arbitrary rules are^quite unsuited to the 
commercial requirements of the age." 



284 The PftACTiCAi. Engineer. 

Erom the foregoing it appears that there is much un- 
certainty in ascertaining the power of engines. The 
following rule if adopted would be found perfectly sat- 
isfactory : Square the diameter in inches of the cylinder, 
and divide the product by 5, which gives the number of 
horse power. And for the benefit of those who do not 
understand figures, I will give a table of the horse power 
according to this rule. I wish you now to compare this 
table with the difi'erent tables I have laid down before 
youj and I have no doubt but that the majority will ap- 
prove of this rule, for its great simplicity and correct- 
ness. &c. 

Example. — A cylinder 5 inches in diameter, how 
many horse power? 5X5 are 25; divided by 5, gives 5 
horse power. Another : a cylinder 10 inchcvS diameter, 
how many horse power? 10X10 are 100; divided by 5, 
gives 20 horse power. Another : A cylinder 20 inches 
in diameter, how many horse power? 20X20 are 400; 
divided by 5, gives 80 horse power, &c. In this rule it 
is not necessary to know the stroke of the engine, as 
the supposition is that all the pistons travel the same 
speed per minute. 

Rule to find the number of men power in an en- 
gine. — Square the diameter of the cylinder and the pro- 
duct is the number required. 

Cylinder is 5 inches diameter, 5 

5 

Divide this by 5, 5 ) 25 men power, 

gives the number of horse power, 6 horse power. 
The strength of a horse is equal to that of five men. 



Miscellaneous. 285 

I have given two selections on the subject of horse 
power, and also six cards from five different establish- 
ments, two of them from one establishment, having the 
number of revolutions per minute reduced of each en- 
gine, as you will see by looking at the two different 
tables on the cards, and of course the horse power in 
each engine is reduced accordingly in the same propor- 
tion. In all these tables the number of revolutions and 
horse power is mentioned, but nothing is said about the 
height of steam carried. You see a great difference in 
the power of the engines, in the different tables; for 
example, there is one 11 inch cylinder, 18 inch stroke, 
called 40 horse power. In the course of a few years 
the speed of the engine is reduced, and the power of the 
same engine is made out to be 25 horse power. 

There is another table of New York engines; one 
cylinder is 11 inch bore, same as the above, and 22 
inch stroke, called 15 horse power. How are we to ac- 
count for this difference of the two engines? the small- 
est of the two being made out nearly three times as 
strong as the one having the same bore and 4 inches 
more stroke. I can understand it only in this way : 
when the one made out his calculation, he intended car- 
rying 50 lbs. steam per square inch, whilst the other 
calculated on something like 150 lbs. steam; or else 
there must be a difference in the calculation of the 
speed of the tw^o engines. There is no mention made 
whether these engines all work full stroke or cut off 
steam, and how much, so that w^e are left partly in the 
dark on the subject of the horse power ; we cannot un- 
derstand it wdth so much variation as we see in the dif- 
ferent tables laid down before us. Unless we all work 



286 The Practioal Engineer. 

by one rule in the calculating of horse power we will 
come to incorrect conclusions. One man makes his rule 
very small, another makes his as large as possible, and 
another comes between the two, &c. Twelve inches is 
the length of the foot rule, I believe everywhere. It 
would be a strange rule that would measure 12 inches 
in Pittsburgh, and 20 inches in Philadelphia, and 30 
inches in New York, &c., not only varying thus in the 
different cities, but in one and the same city. 

For the benefit of those wishing to have a general 
rule to calculate horse power, so that the calculation, 
will come out nearly about the same everywhere, it will 
be necessary for all to calculate on the piston traveling 
a certain number of feet per minute ; next, all to carry 
steam the same height, and all to work steam full stroke, 
or to cut off a certain amount, w^hich ought to be stated, 
and to have the engines then to deduct a certain amount 
for friction. The presumption is that all the engines 
are to be finished complete and true, so that they will 
work to good advantage. 

Nine square feet of boiler surface are said to be equal 
to one horse power ; and one square foot of grate bar 
surface in the boiler furnace gives the same power. 



Miscellaneous. 



287 



TABLES OF HORSE POWERS, PRICES, &c. 



Diameter 




1 
1 

Diameter 




Diameter 




of 


Ilorso Power. 


of 


Horse Power. 


of 


llorse Power. 


Cylinder. 




Cylinder, 
inches. 




Cylinder. 




inches. 






inches. 




1 


1 


26 


1354 


51 


5201 


2 


1 
"5 


27 


1454 


52 


540| 


3 


1| 


28 


1564 


53 


5611 


4 


H 


29 


168| 


54 


5831 


5 


5" 


30 


180 


55 


605 


6 


n 


31 


1924 


56 


6271 


7 


9| 


32 


2044 


57 


6494 


8 


124 


33 


2174 


58 


6721 


9 


16| 


34 


2311 


59 


6964 


10 


20 


35 


247 


60 


720 


11 


24i 


36 


2594 


70 


980 


12 


28| 


37 


2731 


71 


10084 


13 


334 


38 


2884 


72 


1036| 


14 


39| 


39 


8044 


73 


10694 


15 


45 


40 


320 


74 


10954 


16 


5H 


41 


3364 


75 


1125' 


17 


57| 


42 


352| 


76 


11554 


18 


644 


43 


3694 


78 


12161 


19 


'2| 


44 


3871 


79 


12481 


20 


80 


45 


405 


80 


1280 


21 


881 


46 


4234 


81 


1312^ 


22 


964 


47 


4411 


82 


1344| 


23 


106| 


48 


4604 


83 


13371 


24 


115i 


49 


4804 


84 


1411J 


25 


125 


50 


500 


85 


1445 



Note. — All these calculations are for a medium height of steam 
and speed. 



288 



The Practical Engineer, 



OSCILLATING ENGINES. 

A.— 1. 



1 

s 


1 

s 
in. 


1- 

P 


Estimated Ilorae 
Power. 


Price with Fire 

Front, Grate 

Bars, &c., and 

witboat 
Boiler or Pipes, 


Price with Boiler 

and 

all complete, 

except 
Smoke Stack. 


Price without 
Grate Bam, Kire 

Front, 
Governor, or any- 
thing 
but Engine. 


ia. 












S| 


7 


300 to 325 


4 


$175 


§225 


$150 


4} 


9 


260 to 300 


6 


225 


300 


200 


5} 


10 


240 to 290 


10 


325 


450 


300 


7 


13 


180 to 225 


16 


450 


650 


400 


9 


14 


170 to 200 


25 


600 


850 


550 


11 


18 


130 to 180 


40 


700 


1150 


650 


13 


18 


130 to 180 


56 


900 


1300 


800 


14 


22 


109 to 150 


65 


1100 


1600 


1000 


16 


24 


109 to 150 


85 


1250 


1800 


1150 



2. 



11 


6 

t 

(« 

O 

t 

a 
in. 


p. 

.11 

> 
© 


U 

!§ . 

II 

1 


Price with Fire 

Front, Grate 

Bars, (tc, and 

without 
Boiler or Pipes. 


Price with Boiler 

and 

all complete, 

oicept 
Smoke Stack. 


Price without 
Grate Bars, Fire 

Front, 
Governor, or any- 
thing 
but Engine. 


in. 












8J 


7 


200 to 225 


2 


$175 


$225 


$150 


41 


9 


175 to 200 


4 


225 


300 


200 


5i 


10 


150 to 175 


6 


325 


450 


300 


7 


13 


125 to 150 


10 


450 


650 


400 


9 


14 


120 to 140 


15 


600 


850 


550 


11 


18 


100 to 120 


25 


700 


1100 


650 


13 


18 


90 to 110 


40 


900 


1350 


800 


14 


22 


80 to 100 


50 


1100 


1600 


1000 


16 


24 


65 to 75 


65 


1250 


1800 


1150 



Miscellaneous. 



289 



B, 





Ui 








<D U 


a> a 


® u 




£ 


1 


S 








•Sfis-: 


SI 1 


^li^ 


O 

II 


C3 


1 




Pi o 

8 

2 


•sis. 




C^ o 


I'll 5 

Ph tiP^ 

r-r. 




n 
4 


8 


200 




P^ PQ 


FM S 


P^ ft 




2 


$165 


$180 


$255 


$275 


$320 


8 


4} 


8 


200 


185 


200 


275 


300 


860 


5 


5 


10 


180 


225 


245 


375 


400 


475 


6 


6 


8 


200 


225 


245 


375 


400 


475 


6to7 


6 


12 


150 


325 


350 


500 


535 


650 


10 


. 7J 


15 


125^ 


425 


450 


700 


750 


925 


15 


8i 


18 


110 


525 


550 


850 


900 


1050 


20 


10 


12 


150 


600 


675 


1125 


1200 


1425 


25 


10 


24 


75 


650 


720 


1175 


1350 




35 


12 


24 


75 


800 


900 


1350 


1425 




45 


14 


28 


60 


900 


1000 


1550 


1650 




55 


16 


32 


50 


1000 


1100 


1600 


1800 




65 


18 


36 


45 


1100 


1200 


1750 


1900 




75 


20 


40 


40 


1200 


1300 


1900 


2050 




85 


22 


44 


35 


1300 


1400 


2100 


2350 




100 


25 


50 


80 


1450 


1800 


2600 


3200 





c. 



D'ameter of 


Length of 


Price. 


Diameter of 


Length of 


Price. 


Cylinder. 


-Stroke. 


Cylinder. 


Stroke. . 


inches. 


inches. 




inches. 


inches. 




4 


8 


$150 


12 


24 


$800 • 


6 


10 


225 


14 


28 


950 


6 


12 


300 


16 


32 


1150 


7i 


15 


400 


18 


86 


1400 


8i- 


17 


500 


20 


40 


1650 


10 


12 


600 


22 


44 


2000 


10 


24 


650 


24 


48 


2300 



26 



290 



The Pkactical Engineer. 



D. 



<D 


« 


^ 


^ 


OJ 




^^ 


OQ 


II 


•s 
5 


S*?^ 


W) 




i 


n 


Kl 


in. 


in. 


4} 


9 


5J 


10 


7 


13 


9 


14 


11 


18 


13 


18 


14 


22 


16 


24 



1^ 
Is 



200 
175 
150 
140 
120 
110 
100 



75 






4 to 6 
6 to 8 
10 to 12 1 
15 to 20 I 
25 to 30 ' 
40 to 45 
50 to 60 
65 to 75 



p no 



rSa^ 



^ OJ 



7? 1s -w 



o 



I .t: 



«s o 









fcc'y) 



9225 
325 
450 
600 
700 
900 
1100 
1250 



$800 

450 

650 

850 

1100 

1350 

P1600 

;|1800 



$200 
300 
400 
550 
650 
800 
1000 
1150 



PORTABLE ENQIKES< 
A. 



Horse Power. 


Bore of Cylinder. 


stroke 
of Cylinder. 


Weight 
of Engines. 


Price complete. 




inches. 


inches. 


lbs. 




3 


4 


6 


1800 


$280 


4 


4^ 


10 


2200 


850 


5 


5 


10 


3000 


425 


1 


6 


12 


3500 


550 


9 


7 


14 


4000 


685 


12 


8 


16 


4800 


900 



Miscellaneous. 



291 



B. 



NEW STYLE 



Horse 




Estimated 




Diameter of 


Face of 


Power. 


Cash Price. 


Weight. 


Space occupied. 


Fiy Wheel. 


Wheel. 






lbs. 


feet. 


inches. 


inches. 


U 


$175 


1000 


2x5 


24 


4 


2i 


275 


1800 


4x5 


39 


5J 


3 


325 


2000 


5x4 


39 


5i 


4 


400 


2200 


7x5 


40 


6 


6 


575 


3000 


7x5 


44 


7 


8 


735 


4500 


9x6J 


48 


8 


10 


880 


5900 


10x6i 


60 


8 


12 


1025 


7000 


14x6 J 


72 


12 


15 


1300 


9000 


15x7 


72 


12 


20 


1700 


10500 


16x7 


72 


12 



ANSWERS TO COMMON INQUIRIES. 

1. The macliinery is permanently attached to the boiler, 
and the engine may be removed entire from place to place, 
without deranging or injuring any part of it. 

2. The boiler is locomotive, which is the best in use, gen- 
erating from a third to a half more steam than others, with 
the same fire and water space, occupying less room, and 
adapted to both wood and coal. 

3. The exhaust steam passes directly into the smoke pipe, 
by which all sparks from the fire are extinguished. 

4. This engine is admirably suited to all kinds of mechan- 
ical and agricultural pursuits, where motive power is required. 

5. An engine of four horse power, for example, will cut a 
cord of wood from the log in ten minutes. To run an engine 
of this size, it takes about one-eighth of a cord of good dry 
wood^ and one hundred gallons of water per day. For a 
fifteen horse power, about one cord of wood and three hun- 
dred gallons of water per day. 

6. Not only hard, but wood in all its forms may be used. 



292 



The Practical Engineer. 



OLD STYLE. 



Horse 

Power. 


Cash Price. 


Estimated 
■Weight. 


Space occnpied. 


Diameter of 
riy Wheel. 


Face of 
Wheel. 






lbs. 


feet. 


inches. 


inches. 


1* 


8175 


1000 


2x5 


24 


4 


2* 


250 


2000 


4x5 


39 


5J 


3 


300 


2200 


5x4 


39 


5* 


4 


375 


2500 


7x5 


40 


6 


6 


550 


3600 


7x5 


44 


< 


8 


700 


4800 


9x6i 


48 


8 


10 


S75 


6000 


10x6 J 


60 


8 


12 


1050 


7500 


14x6J 


72 


12 


15 


1300 


9000 


15x7 


72 


12 


20 


1700 


10500 


16x7 


72 


12 



The above list contains the price of engines complete, 
ready for smoke pipe and band. Smoke pipe furnished at 
ten cents per pound. The above prices include the expenses 
of boxing and shipping. 

C. 









WEIGHT . 


i X D 


DIMENSIONS. 












u 


<D i u 








u 










a 


|!-. 


^1- 


§ 

9 


• 


1 




,3 


1 


^ 
*" 


o 


c 
a: 






o 












^ 


^ 


^ .~s 


5 

in. 






lbs. 


feet. 


ft. 


ft 


in. 


to. 


1 


to. 




12 


7500 


14 


5 


6 


8 


16120 


60 


12 Cut off and Governor. 


10 


7000 


14 


5 


6 


8 


16 100 


60 


12 i ^• 


8 


5800 


lOJ 


5 


6 


8 


14 


110 48 


12 \ ^^ 


6 


4200 


10 !4 '5ii7 


14 


120 


48 


9 1 a u u 


4 


2600 


8* 


3*5 '51 


12 


140 


42 


gi u a u 


3 


2000 


6J 


3*5 i5|' 


8 


150 


42 


6j: '<• '' " 


2J 


1600 


6 


3J4*4* 


8 


150 


30 


6 jL. Valve— Printers. 


2 


1000 


5i 


3 3*3* 


8 


160 


18 


3 J S. Valve & Governor. 


IJ 


9C0 


5 1 


3 13* 3*" 


8160 


18 


3^ Lap '' '- '' 


1 700 


4 2*3 3 6160 


18 


3J Sqr. ^^ '- 



MiSCELLANEOU 



293 



Horse Power. 


Price. 


For Blower. 


Horse Power. 


Price. 


For Blower. 


12 


$985 


815 


3 


§262 


810 


10 


825 


15 : 


2J 


212 


8 


8 


665 


15 i 


2 


167 


8 


6 


480 


15 


u 


140 





4 


340 


10 


1 


115 


5 



For extra finished engines : 12 horse power, §1100 — 10 
do., §900—8 do., ST40— 6 do., §550. 



PRICE OF ENGLISH PORTABLE ENGINES. 

Extract from Ed. Cor. of the Ohio Cultivator of September 1, 1851, 
dated London^ Aug-ust 6, 1851. 

In horse powers and threshing machines, also, our 
country is decidedly in advance of England; but unfortunate- 
ly, there are no good specimens here on exhibition, to prove 
our assertion. We find that steam poioer is fast superseding 
horse power for threshing, grinding, cutting straw, &c., in 
this country; and this improvement, we doubt not, will soon 
be introduced by extensive farmers in our country. 

Portable steam engines, of from four to six horse power, 
are here found more economical than horse power for thresh- 
ing and other farm purposes. This would especially be the 
case in our country, where one engine and threshing machine 
could do the work of a neighborhood. These engines are con- 
structed on a similar principle to that of a railway locomotive, 
only much lighter and simpler. They are mounted on four 
wheels like a wagon, with the tire of double width, and can 
easily be drawn from place to place by a pair of horses. The 
following table will show the weight, cost and consumption 
of coal per day (of ten hours), of the difi'erent size engines, 

25* 



294 The Pkactical Engineer. 

as advertised by one firm, who hare made and sold about one 
hundred engines during tbe past twelve months : 

norse Power. Coal per day. Weight. Pr'ce. 

. 3 3 cwt. 80 ewt. 8654 75 

5 5 ewt. 50 cwt. 848 75 

7 7 cwt. 60 cwt. 1042 75 

9 9 cwt, 75 cwt. 1236 75 



VERTICAL STEAM ENGINES. 

JLTorse Power. Bore of Cylinder. Length of Stroke. Price. 

inches. inches. 

5 6i 16 81000 

10 9 22 1850 
15 11 22 1600 

The above prices do not include boiler or pipes. Locomo- 
tive, flue, or plain cylinder boiler, for ditto, furnished to 
order. 

The pedestal of 5 horse engine is 3 feet by 2 inches by 2 
feet 10 inches. 

The band fly-wheel of ditto, is 5 feet 9 inches diameter, 
and weighs 1700 pounds. 

The pedestal of 10 horse engine is 4: feet by 3 feet 5 inches. 

The band fly-wheel of ditto, is 7 feet by 3 inches diameter, 
and weighs 2750 pounds. 

The prices of eng'nes in all the foregoing tables are as 
they were when currency was nearly equal to gold; now, 
(1864) they cost about three times as much. 

RULE 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF REYOLtTlONS OF THE LAST 

DRIVEN WHEEL TO ONE REVOLtTlON 

OF THE FIRST DRIVER. 

Multiply the number of cogs of the driving wheels 
together, and the number of coors of the driven wheels 



Miscellaneous. 



295 



together. Divide the first product by the last, and the 
quotient will be the answer. 



EXAMPLE, 



1st driver, 100 cogs— 2d, 74— 3d, 40— 4th, 80— 5th, 60. 
1st driven, 25 cogs— 2d, 37— 3d, 30— 4th, 40— 5th, 35. 



100 cogs. 
74 cogs. 

7400 

40 cogs. 


25 cogs. 
37 cogs. 

175 

75 


296000 

80 cogs. 


925 

30 cogs. 


23680000 

60 cogs. 


27750 

40 cogs, 


1420800000 


1110000^ 

! 352cogs 




5550000 
3330000 



38850000 



3885,0000 ) 142080,0000 ( 36||| revs. 
11655 



26630 
23310 



rx 2220, 
^ 3885^"-^' 



296 The Practical Engineer. 



36||l 444 

1st driver, 100 revs, per min. 100 



36571 revolutions 777 ) 44400 ( 574 

per minute. 3885 



5550 
5439 



Note. — In order to find the speed of the last driven 
wheel, the above quotient must be multiplied by the 
number of revolutions of the first driver per minute. 
In the above example the first driver makes 100 rev- 
olutions per minute, then 8Q^^ X 100 is 36574, which 
is the number per minute of the revolutions of the last 
driven wheel. 

An Midler must either be counted both driver and 
driven, or left out of the process altogether. The 
fifth driving wheel in the above example and the fourth 
driven are the same, and should be omitted. 

100X74X60X80=35520000 
25X37X30X35= 971250 

8552000 divided by 971250=36|f4 

The reason why the idler is omitted is, that it works 
on both sides, as will be seen in the plate ; the idler is 
known also by the names of leader and carrier. 



Miscellaneous. 



297 



. ^^^^'^Tt-^: 



L x>- 





296 The Pbactical Engineer. 



nu 

In 

oil 

is 

dr 

dr 
fif 
dr 



on 
kr 



fiiik^ 



■ "■ 



Miscellaneous, 



297 



( 



C3 



CO 

LU 



09 

CO 



CO 

o 
o 

c 

E 

3 
O 

s. 

o 



o 






«3 

P 

1^ 



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c<i c<i c^i (>q cvi c<i (>i (^i CO CO (^f CO* CO CO (^0 CO CO ^ ^ Tji 



'^<:oc5C<iTtii:^o<Mioooi-HCOcoa5i— iT^it^CiCviiO 

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r-ZfO ihItJ^ ec|aO rH|f^ iftjoo CCi'f t'loo i-i|» rH(^ M|ao 



298 



The Practical Engineer, 



1^ 


colr^ooooc:)OT-lC^^(^qco^tooc^'l:^QOc:)00^ 


i 
1 


OiO^-^COt— IrH,— IOC50000i:^OiOOTHC0C0(>q 
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§ 


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2 
tog 


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lO CD 1> 






Miscellaneous. 299 



(^10 1■^a5^HTJ^OGOOC<^Ol>-C5^HCOOC»OG<^lO 
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800 



The Peactical Engineer. 



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Miscellaneous. 



801 



Side of 
Equal Square. 


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S02 



The pBiiCTiCAL Engineer, 






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: 5 


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cococOcococococococococococococococococo 

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CMC^lC^lCOCOCOCOCOCO^rf^T^TfTfOOOtOLO 


Diam. 


O rH C<1 CO TiH 
^t^ Tit* "^ ^3^ ^^ 



Miscellaneous. 



303 



1 

li 


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GO TjH (NT O O O ^ -tH i^ rH t-^ CO O Oi^ QO OO G^^ rH O Ci 

u^i^05rJc6idb-lo'-^rH<:DOC<i^*i>^oco*J>^oco 

t^Oi-^-^OaOOJMiOt-OT-HT^CDQOrHCOiOOOO 
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s 


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J>I 1-^ q6 C^ O rH r-J (^1 O-D Tt -rt^* JO CO ir-^ o6 GO Ci O r-H (>i 

loioioiocococococoocococococococojr-t-j:- 




Cil^COTf^C<ICit-.'^T-HGOiOr^OOr^OCO(Ml:-(MOO 
r^i-HpQqGOQCOCOi>»rHl>^T*HrHOOOCvjrtiOOG<l 

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O 1—1 (M CO Tt^ 

»0 O O lO lO 



304 



The Practical Ejsgineek, 



Ox C-l ri^ -^ Ci -^ '^C iO 1^ CJ 'M ^ O CO O 'M -^ r- C:) T— I 

<:r; oo o >i ^^ i^ c:- — ; o*: tc ao o t^i ^ t- cs r--. cv^ o go 

^- ^-^ cc X) c<3 GO 'Oi c^ r:- c:x c^. o o o o o' — * r-^ --* ^ 



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^* ^ o o i>^ GO o6 c:i o T-H '>"i '>a CO c^"i td i6 •^' r^ oc' ci 

OOOOCDO'OO^-'r— t'— '1— .— r-lr— IT-Hr— It— l»— irH 

(>i (>i c>q cvi G<i (>q c\i (^l c^i c<i c<i c<i c<i (^I c^r (^^ (>i c^i (Ni cvi 



OOOLCCOOOnOiOrHI^'MOOCOOOCOGO^MO^H 
CO GO lO C<1 i—j T-H C<| ^^ O O Th; O O ^^ !M (M ^1 ^^ O O 

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COCOCOCO^^-t^^-Hu^OiOOOOOlr-t^t^l^GO 
CO CiO CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 rO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 



fi-^ r-(i?^ CC'':*^ 



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CO CO CO co' -+ Ti* -rt^ ^- -+ id id lO ir^ o o o o CO t^ 1^ 



Ci GO 

go" (zi 

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f-iTi r-;M CC;<^ 



Miscellaneous. 305 



GOVERNORS OR REGULATORS. 

No part of the steam engine has proved to be more 
of a failure than the governor. Latterly, however, they 
are making great improvements in this part of the en- 
gine. The principal cause of failure was the speed of 
the governor, which w^as either too fast or too slow. 
Another cause was defective butterfly valves, which 
are seldom if ever made tight. In a few instances 
these valves have done very well. Another cause w^as 
that the balls w^ere frequently made too light, &c., and 
had to be weighted with lead or something else. 

The following extract is from an English w^ork by 
Robert Brunton : 

" Governor, or Double Pendulum. — If the revo- 
lution be the same, w^hatever be the length of the arms, 
the balls will revolve in the same plane, and the dis- 
tance of that plane from the point of suspension, is 
equal to the length of a pendulum, the vibrations of 
which will be double the revolutions of the balls. For 
example ; suppose the distance between the point of sus- 
pension and plane of revolution be 36 inches, the vibra- 
tions that a pendulum of 86 inches w^ill make per min- 
375 62 

ute, is = — - 62 vibrations, and — = 31 revolutions 

1/-36 2 ^ 

per minute the balls ought to make." 

Another example from Mr. Thomson, formerly an 
engine builder in Pittsburgh, but now superintendent of 
the city gas works : 

^'A common pendulum will make two vibrations in 
26^^ 



306 TtiE Practical EngixXeer. 

the same time that the balls of a conical pendulum on 
a steam governor of the same length from the centre of 
suspension to the centre cf oscillation, will perform one 
revolution. Therefore to ascertain the proper length of 
the rods of a governor, that is required to make a given 
number of revolutions per minute, by the foregoing rule, 
find the length of a pendulum that will vibrate twice for 
every revolution required of the governor, and it will be 
the proper length for the rods of tlie governor." 

The following is from a work on the steam engine, by 
James Renwick, LL. D.: 

"The action of the fly, in producing regularity of 
motion, reaches only to the inequalities that take place 
in the motion of the piston, during a single stroke. 
Should the flow of steam increase, the mean motion of 
the fly wheel will be accelerated, and should the flow be 
diminished, the fly-wheel will uniformly be retarded. 
Neither does it control any change in the motion of the 
machinery, driven by the steam, unless that change be 
periodic. But it frequently happens that the quantity 
of steam, supplied by the boiler, fluctuates.' Some reg- 
ulator is, therefore, necessary, which shall control the 
prime mover itself. For this purpose, a governor is 
adapted to the steam engine. This is also required in 
cases where the quantity of work to be performed is 
fluctuating, as is the case in many branches of manufac- 
tures, where a part of the machinery may be suddenly 
stepped, or may be as suddenly connected with the en- 
gine. The governor is an apparatus that is sometimes 
called a conical pendulum. Two heavy balls are sus- 
pended by bars to the opposite sides of a vertical axis. 
This axis is set in motion by the engine; as it turns. 



Miscellaneous. 307 

the balls of the governor acquire a centrifugal force, 
which may be sufficient to overcome their weight, and 
cause them to diverge and fly off, performing in their 
course a larger circle than before. As the balls fly off, 
they act, through the intervention of a system of levers, 
upon a valve that is situated in the steam pipe. This, 
which is called the throttle-valve, has the form of a cir- 
cular disk of metal, exactly filling up the pipe, when 
placed across it. It turns upon pivots placed at the 
opposite ends of one of its diameters, and may thus, 
either present its edge to the steam that passes along 
the pipe, in which case it hardly resists its course ; or 
may assume any intermediate position, until it close the 
pipe altogether. When the balls of the governor revolve 
with so little velocity that the centrifugal force cannot 
overcome their weight, the levers place the throttle 
valve in the position that presents its edge to the steam ; 
when the velocity becomes great enough to throw out 
the balls to their utmost limit, this valve is thrown 
across the pipe, and shuts the passage completely ; with 
intermediate positions of the valves, the passage is more 
or less open, according to the rotary velocity of the gov- 
ernor. 

" The governor is driven by a strap that passes over 
a drum on the axis of the crank, or by wheels and 
pinions, deriving their motion from the same part of 
the engine." 

Either of these two plans will do. In order to increase 
the speed of an engine governor to any rate you may 
please, all that is necessary is to have a counter shaft 
with a nest of 2, 3 or more pulleys, and a corresponding 
set of pulleys on the governor shaft, and if the engine 



308 The Pkactical Engineer. 

is running on the slow speed, and you wish to increase 
it, when putting on the blast all that is necessary is to 
shift the belt of the small pulley on the governor shaft 
on to the larger; this reduces the speed of the governor, 
and opens the valve and runs the engine faster, and in 
this way you can have any speed on the engine you 
please, or as many different speeds as you have different 
pulleys. In order that a governor w^ork well it should 
be very sensitive, and work with as little friction as 
2D0ssible; the arms on which the balls are suspended 
should be about 30 degrees when down, and allowed to 
rise 10 degrees, and not more than 15, which would be 
an angle of 45 degrees when up. 

I Avill conclude by giving you a practical rule to get 
the proper speed for the governor. Put a temporary 
crank on the governor shaft, and turn it round by hand 
until it raises the frog or balls exactly half way up, and 
count the number of revolutions per minute; this will 
give the right speed for the governor : or if you prefer 
you can put on a temporary pulley on the governor 
shaft, and run it with a belt from some other pulley in 
the shop, and in this way you would have a more regu- 
lar motion than by hand. 



Miscellaneous. 80y 

TABLE OF THE WEIGHT OF CAST IRON PIPES. 



i 

o 






Weight. 


c 




O 


Weight. 


1 




fcj) 


Weight. 


p 


H 


1 






H 


1 

9 






3 
4 


9 




1 


1 


1 

3ft.6 


R 


1 
1^ 


12 


3 


2 


21 


7 


2 


8 




^ 


3 ft.6 





10 


21 




a 


9 


4 


1 


21 




1 


9 


10 


1 


2 


n 


J 


4ft.6 








21 




1 


9 


6 





14 


12 


J 


9 


5 





24 




f 


4 ft.6 





1 


4 


7 


1 


9 


2 


1 


7 




1- 


9 


6 


2 


8 


2 


i 


6 





1 


8 






9 


3 





7 




1 


9 


7 


3 


20 




1 


6 





2 







A 


! 9 


3 


3 


20 




1 


9 


10 


3 





2J 


i 


6 


a 


! 1 


16 




f 


9 


4 


3 


5 


12J 


* 


6 


5 


1 


1 ^^ 




i 


6 





2 


10 




1 


9 


6 


2 


4 




1 


9 


6 


3 


9 




i 


6 





3 


10 


H 


1 


9 


2 


2 


4 




3 
4 


9 


8 


1 





3 


1 


9 





2 


20 




J 


9 


3 


1 


6 




1 


9 


11 





21 






9 


1 





6 




1 


9 


4 


|o 


22 


13 


J 


9 


5 


2 


20 




^ 


9 


1 


1 


12 




f 


9 


5 





10 




1 


9 


7 





14 




1 


9 


1 


3 


6 




1 


9 


7 










f 


9 


8 


2 


7 




f 


9 


2 


1 





8 


1 


9 


3 


2 


4 




1 


9 


11 


2 


12 


^ 


\ 


9 





3 







1 


9 


4 


1 


25 


131 


h 


9 


5 


3 


^ 




i 


9 


1 





21 




1 


9 


5 


1 


18 




1 


9 


7 


1 


12 




i 


9 


1 


2 


14 




1 


9 


7 


1 


16 




f 


9 


8 


3 


16 




1 


9 


2 





8 


8J 


1 


9 


3 


3 


2 




1 


9 


11 


3 


24 




f 


9 


2 


2 









9 


4 


2 


26 


14 


i 


9 


6 





4 


4 


1 


9 


1 


1 


10 




4 


9 


5 


2 


22 




1 


9 


7 


2 


16 




* 


9 


1 


3 


12 




1 


9 


7 


3 


8 




f 


9 


9 


1 







1 


9 


2 


2 


12 


9 


1 


9 


4 










1 


9 


12 


1 


14 




]i 


9 


2 


3 


21 




1 


9 


5 





A 


^^ 


J 


9 


6 





24 


4J 


1 


9 


1 


2 


2 




f 


9 


6 





2 




1 


9 


7 


3 


14 




i 


9 


2 





4 




1 


9 


8 





26 




3 
4 


9 


9 


2 


2 




1 


9 


2 


2 


14 


H 


1 


9 


4 





18 




1 


9 


12 


3 


6 




f 


9 


3 





21 






9 


5 


1 





15 


I 


9 


6 


1 


21 


5 


f 


9 


1 


2 


22 




1 


9 


6 


1 


6 




|- 


9 


8 





14 




i 


9 


2 


1 


10 




1 


9 


8 


2 i 


20 




i 


9 


9 


3 


7 




8 


9 


2 


3 


17 


10 


1 


9 


4 


1 


10 




1 


9 


13 





26 






9 


3 


1 


24 




1 


9 


5 


1 ; 


26 




If 


9 


16 


3 


5 


H 


f 


9- 


1 


3 


10 




i 


9 


6 


2| 


14 


151 




9 


6 


2 


14 




* 


9 


2 


2 







1 


9 


9! 


0| 


8 




1 


9 


8 


1 


14 




1 


9 


3 





18 


lOj 


1 


9 


4 


2 i 


14 




f 


9 


10 





10 






9 


3 


3 


7 






9 


5 


3 


7 




1 


9 


13 


2 


17 




1 


9 


5 





12 




1 


9 


7 










n 


9 


17 


1 


e 


6 


1 


9 


2 










1 


9 


9 


2 





16 


i 


9 


7 





22 




i 


9 


2 


2 


21 


11 


1 


9 


4 


3 


14 




1 


9 


8 


3 


7 






9 


3 


1 


17 




1 


9 


6 





11 




'i 


9 


10 


1 


20 




4 


9 


4 





16 




f 


9 


7 


1 


7 




] 


9 


14 





8 




]. 


9 


5 


2 


20 




1 


9 


9 


3 


20 




H 


9 


17 


3 


14 


6J 


1 


9 


2 





16 


nj 


J 


9 


5 





7 




H 


9 


21 


^i 


4 




^ 1 


9 


2 1 


3 20 i 




1 


9 


6 


1 12j 




2 


9 


29 


3 1 21 



310 The Practical Engineer. 

The foregoing table of the weight of cast iron pipes, 
gives the length of pipe according to the diameter of 
bore, as generally used in practice. 

Diameter of bore in inches. 
Thickness of metal in inches. 
Length of pipe in feet. 
It is found to be of great use in making estimates of 
pipes : — for instance, it is required to know the weight 
of a range of pipes 225 feet long, 7J inches diameter 
of bore, and metal fths of an inch thick. 
9)225 . 

25 pipes in the whole length. 

One pipe weighs 4.0. 22, which, multiplied by 25, is 
equal to 104 . 3 . 18, or 5 tons, 4 cwt. 3 quarters, 18 lbs. 

weisrht of the whole rano^e. 



TABLE OF THE VELOCITY OF MOTION. 

The following is a table of the velocity of Motion, for 
boring cast iron cylinders, pumps, &c., and heavy turn- 
ing, with fixed cutters. 

It will be observed, that the surface bored is constant- 
ly the same, 78.54 feet per minute; this velocity is found 
to be the most advantageous : a velocity greater than 
this, not only takes the temper out of the cutters, but 
also causing more heat, expands the metal: and if the 
machine stops but for a few seconds, a mark is left from 
the contraction of the metal. 

Turning has a velocity double to that of boring. 



MiSCELLAKEOtS. 



311 



TABLE 



BORING. 


TURNING. 


Inches 
Diametct. 


Eetohitions 

of Bar 
per minute. 


Inches 
Diameter. 


Retolutiona 

of ShHft 
per minute- 


1 


25. 


1 


50. 


2 


12,5 


2 


25. 


8 


8.83 


8 


1667 


4 


6.25 


4 


12.50 


5 


5. 


5 


10. 


6 


4.16 


6 


8.82 


7 


3.57 


7 


7.15 


8 


3.125 


8 


6.25 


9 


2.77 


9 


5.55 


10 


2.5 


10 


5. 


15 


1.66 


15 


3.38 


20 


1.25 


20 


2.50 


25 


1. 


25 


2. 


30 


0.833 


30 


1.667 


85 


0.714 


35 


1.430 


40 


0.625 


40 


1.250 


45 


0.56 


45 


1.12 


50 


0.5 


50 


1. 


60 


0.417 


60 


0.834 


70 


0.858 


70 


0.716 


80 


0.813 


80 


0.626 


90 


0.278 


90 


0.556 


100 


0.25 


100 


0.50 



K. B. — iThe progression of the cutters may be j^q of 
an inch for the first cut, and for the last 374. 

If hand tools are employed in tm^ning, the velocity 
may be considerably increased. 



812 



The Pbactical Engineer. 



A SUIT THAT WILL NEVER WEAR OUT. 

Rev. Daniel Buro:ess, a dissenting minister of London^ 
in the seventeenth century, preaching on the robe of 
righteousness, said: ''If any of you would have a good 
and cheap suit, you will go to Monmouth street ; if you 
want a suit for life, you will go to the court of chancery ; 
but if you wish a suit which will last to eternity, you 
must go to the Lord Jesus Christ, and put on his robe 
of righteousness." 



TABLES OF THE WEIGHT OF MALLEABLE AND 
CAST IRON PLATES, BARS, &c. 



Table of the Weight of a square foot of Cast and Malleable Iron^ 
Copjjer and Lead^ from 1-1 6tA to 1 inch thick. 



Thick. 


Cast 


Iron. 


Mall 


Iron. 


1 
Copper. 


Lead 


. 




1 

i 


lbs. 


oz. 


lb3. 


oz. 


lbs. 


1 
cz. 


lbs. 


C£. 


IS 


;ixteenth. 


2 


6.^ 


2 


7.8 


2 


15 


3 


11 


2 


u 


4 


13.3 


4 


lo.6 


5 


14 


7 


6 


3 


u 


1 


4. 


7 


7.4 


8 


13 


11 


1 


4 


(( 


9 


10.6 


9 


15.2 


11 


12 


14 


12 


5 


u 


12 


1.3 


12 


7.1 


14 


11 


18 


7 


6 


u 


14 


8. 


14 


14.9 


17 


10 


22 


2 


7 


ii 


16 


14.Y 


17 


6.7 


20 


9 


25 


13 


8 


a 


19 


5.3 


19 


14.5 


23 


8 


29 


8 





u 


21 


12. 


22 


6.3 


26 


7 


33 


3 


10 


li 


24 


2.Y 


24 


14.2 


29 


6 


36 


14 


11 


a 


26 


9.3 


27 


6. 


32 


5 


40 


9 


12 


a 


29 


0. 


29 


13.8 


35 


4 


44 


4 


13 


a 


31 


6.7 


i 32 


5.6 


38 


3 


47 


15 


14 


li 


33 


13.4 


i 34 


13.4 


' 41 


2 


51 


10 


15 


li 


36 


4. 


37 


5.3 


44 


1 


55 


5 


1 


inch. 


! 38 


10.7 


39 


13.1 


■ 47 





59 






MlSCELLANEOtJS, 



313 



rABLE of the Weight of a Lineal Foot of Malleable and Cast Iron 
Bars J from 6-l6ths to 3 inches square. 





Aren 


' 




ROUND RODS. 


Sixteenths on 


in Square 
Sixteenths 


MALL. IRON. 


CAST IRON. 


The 1 I6th3 on the side 


the side. 


Ounces. 


Ounces weight. 


is the diameter of Rod . 










Ounces weipjht. 


6 


36 


7.4736 




5.83 


1 


49 


10.1724 




7.99 


8 


64 


13.2864 


12.8960 


10.43 


9 


81 


16.8156 




13.20 


10 


100 


20.7600 




16.30 


11 


121 


25.1196 




19.72 


12 


. 144 


29.8944 


29.0160 


23.47 


13 


169 


35.0844 




27.53 


14 


196 


40.6896 




31.94 


15 


225 


46.7100 




36.44 


1 inch* 


256 


53.1456 


51.5840 


41.50 


1 


289 


59.9964 




46.80 


2 


324 


67.2624 




52 47 


3 


361 


74.9436 




58.46 


4 


400 


83.0400 


80.6000 


64.81 


5 


441 


91.5516 




71.41 


6 


484 


100.4784 




78.3? 


7 


529 


109.8204 




85.66 


8 


576 


119.5774 


116.0640 


93.27 


9 


625 


129.7500 




101.21 


10 


676 


140.3376 




109.46 


11 


729 


151.3404 




118.05 


12 


784 


162.7584 


157.9760 


126.95 


13 


841 


174.5916 




136.19 


14 


900 


186.8400 




145.74 


15 


961 


199.5036 




155.62 


2 inches. 


1024 


212.5824 


206.3360 


165.82 


1 


1089 


226.0764 




176.34 


2 


1156 


239.9856 




187.19 


3 


1225 


254.3100 




198.36 


4 


1296 


269.0496 


261.1440 


209.86 


5 


1369 


284.2044 




221.68 


6 


1444 


299.7744 




233.83 


7 


1521 


315.7596 




246.30 


8 


1600 


332.1600 


322.4000 


259.09 


9 


1681 


348.9756 




272.20 


10 


1764 


366.2064 




285.64 


11 


1849 


383.8524 




299.41 


12 


1936 


401.9136 


390.1040 


3x3.49 


13 


2025 


420.3900 




327.91 


U 


2116 


439.2816 




342.64 


15 


2209 


458.5884 




3.^7.70 


3 inches. 


2304 


478.3104 


464.2560 


373.09 



27 



314 The Practical Engine:er* 



CUTTING OFF STEAM. 

The plate opposite is designed to show why steam can- 
not be cut off equal at each end of the slides. The 
dotted line A is drawn through the centre of the shafts. 
The curved line E is described on the centre of the wrist 
of the shoving head, with a radius equal to the length 
of the pitman, and through the centre of the shaft. 
There is also a circle described on the centre of the 
shaft, with a radius equal to the distance from the cen- 
tre of the shaft to the centre of the crank wrist. Now^ 
it will be seen, that the time occupied by the piston in 
the last half of its outward travel and the first half of 
its inward travel, is just the time it takes the craiik to 
pass from where the dotted curve cuts the circle going 
out to the point where it cuts it coming in. The differ- 
ence beween this and the time occupied in the last half 
of the inward, and the first half of the outward travel, 
is just the sum of the difference between the dotted and 
the curved lines on the two sides of the centre of the 
shaft. Hence it is that steam cannot be cut off equal 
at each end of the slides. Might not this be the reason 
of some engines escaping more steam and puflSng louder 
at one end than the other? In proportion as the length 
of the pitman is increased, the variation will be lessened ; 
and, on the other hand, as the pitman is shortened, the 
variation will be increased, as will be seen in the plate 
by the curved line F, described on the centre C. The 
difference of variation in the curve is equal to the differ- 
ence between the points respectively where the dotted 
lines E and F cut the circle and the point where it is cut 



franJr \ Cranks 




Miscellaneous. 815 

by the straight line A. Hence, a pitman half length 
will make doable the variation as in the plate. If a 
rack and pinion were used instead of a crank the motion 
would be equal. 

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. 

In an interesting paper on fires and fire insurance, 
published in the January number of the London Quar- 
terly Review, it is asserted, on the authority of Mr. 
Brainwood, as his belief, that by long exposure to heat, 
not much exceeding that of boiling water, or 212 de- 
grees, timber is brought into such a condition that it will 
fire without the application of light. The time during 
which this dessication goes on until it ends in sponta- 
neous combustion, is, he thinks, from eight to ten years ; 
so that a fire may be hatching on a man's premises du- 
ring the whole of his lease, without making any sign. 
The small circulating pipes which convey hot water 
through a building, have been known to have set fire to 
wood, even when the temperature of the water is not 
over 300 degrees. Builders should inform themselves 
of these facts, and never place pipes conveying heated 
air or water near the wood work of a building. 

In the year 1863 there were 1404 fires in the city of 
London, only 89 of which resulted in the total destruc- 
tion of the buildings. For the whole number of fires 
there are 112 alleged different causes: 227 originated 
from candles, 117 from flues, 26 from matches, 107 from 
sparks, 100 from gas, 24 from hot ashes, 31 from smok- 
ing tobacco, 41 from airing linen, 39 from children play- 
ing with fire and matches. During the same year there 
were 361 fires in New York and 300 in Paris. 



316 The Practical Engineer. 

How TO PUT OX Coals. — It seems there is an art in 
this apparently simple operation, and the process now 
recommended is: "Before jou throw on coals, pull all 
the fire to the front of the grate, fill up the cavity at the 
back with the cinders or ashes which will be found under 
the grate, then throw on the coals. The gas evolved in 
the process of roasting the coals will be absorbed by the 
cinders, which will render them in an increased degree 
combustible. The smoke will thus be burnt, and a fine 
glowing smokeless fire will be the result." 

Explosion of JsTapittiia. — At an inquest lately held 
in England, a grocer testified that while he was pouring 
coal oil from a barrel into another vessel, a lighted can- 
dle being within three feet, he saw a small blue flame 
run along the outside of the barrel to the bung hole. 
Of what followed he was ignorant. But it appears that 
a terrible explosion ensued, for the grocer was pitched 
up into the street insensible ; his house was set on fire, 
the upper apartments quickly filled with a dense black 
smoke, by Avhich three of his children were suffocated, 
while his wife and three other little ones barely escaped 
Avlth their lives. This explosive stuff" was found to be a 
very light coal oil, or naphtha, the vapor from which is 
highly explosive. 

Dangerous Character of BuIk Petroleum. — The 
Oil City Register^ in alluding to a recent fire, states 
that petroleum, in bulk, is very dangerous after being 
recently agitated. Any movement of a large quantity 
brings up the benzole, which is the lightest quality of it, 
to the top and into the atmosphere. This is an inflam- 
mable gas. The slightest contact with a flame sets it 
off* in a flash. Bulk oil impregnates the atmosphere, 



Miscellaneous. 317 

on the contact of a flame of any kind it ignites and ex- 
plodes. 

Spontaneous Combustion. — A curious case of spon- 
taneous combustion was discovered a week or so ago in 
the barn on the premises of Daniel Althouse, deceased, 
in Eastern Township, Berks County. The hay in the 
mow was found to be in a charred state, from which it 
was evident that it had taken fire by spontaneous com- 
bustion, but for want of air had afterward been extin- 
guished without any damage. Cases of spontaneous 
combustion where hay is put away not properly cured, 
are not unfrequent. 

The Indiana Sentinel says: A case of spontaneous 
combustion is said to have occurred west of the canal 
yesterday. A woman was found in a waste house al- 
most burned to a crisp, and as there was no evidence of 
fire having been near her, and she was known to have in- 
dulged freely in the use of alcoholic drinks, the supposi- 
tion is that she was consumed by the flame thus gen- 
erated. 

To Detect Explosive Coal Oil. — Many disasters 
being already occasioned from the use of explosive coal 
oil, the following receipt for ascertaining whether or not 
the article is explosive, may not be out of place : Pour 
a small quantity into a saucer, and bring a lighted match 
slowly down to it. If explosive, the oil will blaze and 
flash up almost like powder ; if not explosive, it will not 
burn at all. The latter only is safe for use. 

Burning Fluid. — According to the record kept by 
Mr. E. Merriam, there Avere, during the year ending 
September 1st, 1853, some thirty-three fatal and disas- 
trous explosions of burning fluid and kindred prepara- 
27"^ 



318 The PrzVctical Engineer. 

tions, mostly in the cities of jSTew York, Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg and vicinity, in ^hich nineteen persons 
were killed, twenty-three persons fatally or severely in- 
jured, three persons slightly wounded, and some three or 
four buildings fired. The preparations alluded to are 
burning fluid, camphene, spirit gas, rosin oil, &c. 



SCENES ON BOARD A FROZEN SHIP. 

A whaling vessel which sailed from London in the 
year 1840, found in the Polar sea a ship embedded in 
the ice, with sails furled, and no signs of life on board. 
The captain and some of the crew descending into the 
cabin, found curled upon the floor a large Newfoundland 
dog, apparently asleep, but when they touched it, they 
found the animal was dead and frozen as hard as a stone. 
In the cabin was a young lady seated at a table, her eyes 
open, as if gazing at the intruders in that desolate place. 
She was a corpse! and had been frozen in an apparent- 
ly resigned and religious attitude. Beside her was a 
j^oung man, who ii appeared, was the commander of the 
brig, and brother to the lady. He was sitting at the 
table dead, and before him was a sheet of paper, on 
Avhich was written, '' Our cook has endeavored since 
yesterday morning to strike a light, but in vain ; all is 
now over." In another ^part of the cabin stood the cook 
with the flint and tinder in hand, frozen, in the vain en- 
deavor to strike fire that could alone save them. The 
terrors of the seamen hurried the captain from the spot, 
who took with him the log-book as the sole memento of 
the ill-fated ship. It appeared that she also was from 



Miscellaneous. , 319 

London, and had been frozen in that place over four- 
teen years. 

SITTING ON SAFETY VALVES. 

It seems that an ignorant fellow in England recently 
adopted the old trick of engineers on the Mississippi 
river — sitting on the safety valve lever so as to increase 
the steam pressure. This is what happened: " The de- 
ceased actually sat upon the safety valve, and insisted 
upon retaining his seat, although warned that his sitting 
there was a source of great danger. The boiler explo- 
ded, and Hirst was thrown a distance of at least 100 
yards, and fell dead in a field. The end of the boiler 
was driven out, and the main portion of the boiler itself 
was forced in the air a height of 100 feet at least, and 
fell at a distance of 150 feet from its place. Mr. Inett, 
the engineer, was buried beneath the bricks and debris^ 
and sustained serious injuries, as did also Mr. Walker's 
groom, one of his farm servants, and two of the laborers 
who were engaged there. One of them was found in- 
sensible under the hot bricks in one corner of the enirine- 
shed and fearfully scalded. Mr. Walker himself and 
two women who had just arrived to assist in the thresh- 
ing had very narrow escapes." All from the reckless- 
ness and stupidity of one man. 



ANTHONY HARKNESS. 

Anthony Harkness, a wealthy and useful citizen of 
Cincinnati, died recently of cancer in the head. He 



320 The Practical Engineer. 

was born in Rhode Island, in 1793; came to Cincinnati, 
a poor journeyman mechanic, in 1820; built one of the 
first machine shops for making steam engines and sugar 
mills, and was the pioneer manufacturer of locomotives 
in that city; joined with Jacob Strader and Samuel 
Fosdick, in 1844, in erecting the Franklin Cotton Fac- 
tory; and has as length passed away at the age of sixty- 
five, leaving half a m.illion of dollars and an unblemish- 
ed name to his surviving wife and three children. The 
Cincinnati Gazette says : 

He was, in the first place, an honest man. He never 
for a moment lost the confidence .of any one who had 
occasion to transact business with him. Everything 
connected Avith this feature of his character was of the 
true metal. There was no trickery or deceit about him 
— not a particle. His word was ever as good as his 
bond, and what he promised he meant to, and always 
did, if possible, perform. If a man ordered an engine, 
or a sugar mill, he would fare as well without a contract 
as with one. He always did what he believed to be 
right between man and man, regardless of circumstances 
or consequences. He scorned to take advantage of any 
one who might be, by accident or otherwise, placed in 
his power. Thus he acquired a reputation that was in 
itself a fortune. His business never diminished, but 
steadily increased, and never was the aphorism, ''honesty 
is the best policy," more fully exemplified, than in the 
successful career of Anthony Harkness. 




CONSULTING ENGINEER. 



JOHN WALLACE, 

Consulting Engineer, 

Offers his services to persons wishing to embark in the 

building of 

Ro^.liiiif ITIill^, Blast Furicace?, 8ugar^ Cotton, Wooleiij 
Flax, €irist; Saw, Oil or Ciay Mills^ 

Or who are about erecting Salt Works, Glass Houses, 
Tanneries, Foundries, &c. 

He will give information w^ith regard to the prices of 
Steam Engines and Boilers, new or second hand. 

He will also give information with regard to the wages 
of hands; the prices of Engines for steam boats, for 
freight, passenger, or ferries. He will attend to the ex- 
changing of Engines for parties desiring it, or in cases 
where persons are about to sell engines, or any machin- 
ery, if they write him, giving full particulars, he will . 
state his estimate of what they are worth, and if they 
desire, sell for them at a reasonable commission. 
THE TERMS WILL BE REASONABLE. 

Address, John Wallace, Engine Builder and Con- 
sulting Engineer, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

The name of the Post Office of the applicant, and the 
County and State, should be distinctly given. 



^W. \^. If^ALJL. ACE'S 

MILL FURA'ISHIA^G ESTABLISHMENT, 

Office, No. 319 Liberty Street, Pittsburgh, Penn'a. 



Steam Engines on hand and made to order, of various 
sizes, suitable for boring Oil Wells, with Stationary and 
Portable Boilers. 

Stationary Engines of all sizes made to order. 

Stationary, Tubular and Portable Boilers, Salt Pans, 
Oil Stills, Tanks, Agitators, and Boiler work in general. 
Engines, Boilers and Oil Stills repaired. Blowing Cylin- 
ders for oil refiners ; Grate Bars ; Saw and Grist Mill 
Gearing ; Hot and Cold Water Pumps ; for Tanners, 
Vault and Furnace Castings, on a new and improved 
plan, for burning tan bark ; Corn and Cob Grinders ; 
Portable Flour and Feed Mills; Proof Safes, &c. 

FRENCH BURR SMUT MACHINES, 

Used in over 1200 Mills — the best wheat cleaner made, 
and most durable ; best Anchor Bolting Cloths ; Mill 
furnishing in general; Hydraulic Cement and Plaster 
Paris. 

Catalogues of Mill Gearing sent to any persons de- 
siring work. 

All orders addressed to the subscriber at 319 Liberty 
Street, Pittsburgh, Pa., will receive prompt attention. 

W. W. WALLACE. 



DEC *8l9a 



